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Medeiros Nunes M, Maia CR, de Andrade Santos PR, de Lisboa Lopes Costa A, de Moura SAB, de Andrade Santos PP. Self-mutilation: a systematic review. Forensic Sci Med Pathol 2024:10.1007/s12024-024-00809-4. [PMID: 38613622 DOI: 10.1007/s12024-024-00809-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/22/2024] [Indexed: 04/15/2024]
Abstract
Self-mutilation lesions can represent a clinical diagnosis challenge for healthcare professionals, as patients do not admit to self-mutilation. This leads to failed diagnoses due to the similarity of this condition to other diseases. Searches on the subject were carried out at the PubMed, Periódicos Capes, Scopus, Science Direct and WoS databases, according to the following inclusion criteria: articles in English, Portuguese or Spanish, published from 2018 to June 2023, encompassing case reports, case series and literature reviews. Men are slight more affected by self-mutilation injuries, also presenting the most serious lesions. Self-mutilation injuries are reported globally, mostly in the Asian and American continents. Clinical presentations are varied, but morphology is, in most cases, associated to the form/instrument used for self-mutilation. Greater evidence of diagnosed mental disorders in women and underreporting of these cases in men due to low demands for specialized treatment are noted. A higher prevalence of self-mutilation lesions was verified for men, affecting a wide age range, with the highest number of cases in the USA. The most affected body areas are arms and external genitalia, mostly due to knife use. An association between self-mutilation injuries and mental disorders is clear, with most cases being previously undiagnosed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matheus Medeiros Nunes
- Postgraduate Program in Structural and Functional Biology, Department of Morphology, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte (UFRN), Natal, RN, Brazil
| | - Caio Rodrigues Maia
- Postgraduate Program in Dental Sciences, Department of Dentistry, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte (UFRN), Natal, RN, Brazil
| | | | - Antônio de Lisboa Lopes Costa
- Postgraduate Program in Dental Sciences, Department of Dentistry, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte (UFRN), Natal, RN, Brazil
| | - Sérgio Adriane Bezerra de Moura
- Postgraduate Program in Structural and Functional Biology, Department of Morphology, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte (UFRN), Natal, RN, Brazil
| | - Pedro Paulo de Andrade Santos
- Postgraduate Program in Structural and Functional Biology, Department of Morphology, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte (UFRN), Natal, RN, Brazil.
- Postgraduate Program in Dental Sciences, Department of Dentistry, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte (UFRN), Natal, RN, Brazil.
- Centro de Biociências, Departamento de Morfologia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte (UFRN), Campus Universitário, Lagoa Nova, CEP 59072-970, Natal, RN, Brasil.
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Martins D, Gil-Martins E, Cagide F, da Fonseca C, Benfeito S, Fernandes C, Chavarria D, Remião F, Silva R, Borges F. Unraveling the In Vitro Toxicity Profile of Psychedelic 2C Phenethylamines and Their N-Benzylphenethylamine (NBOMe) Analogues. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2023; 16:1158. [PMID: 37631071 PMCID: PMC10458253 DOI: 10.3390/ph16081158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2023] [Revised: 08/02/2023] [Accepted: 08/07/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Mescaline derivative (2C phenethylamines) drugs have been modified by the introduction of a N-2-methoxybenzyl group to originate a new series of compounds with recognized and potent psychedelic effects, the NBOMe-drugs. Although they are prevalent in unregulated drug markets, their toxicity profile is still poorly understood, despite several reports highlighting cases of acute intoxication, with brain and liver toxicity. Thus, in this study, mescaline, 2C-N (insertion of a nitro in the para position of the 2C phenethylamines aromatic ring) and 2C-B (insertion of a bromide in the para position of the 2C phenethylamines aromatic ring) and their corresponding NBOMe counterparts, mescaline-NBOMe, 25N-NBOMe and 25B-NBOMe, were synthetized and the in vitro neuro- and hepatocytotoxicity evaluated in differentiated SH-SY5Y and HepG2 cell lines, respectively. Cytotoxicity, oxidative stress, metabolic and energetic studies were performed to evaluate the main pathways involved in their toxicity. Our results demonstrated that the presence of the N-2-methoxybenzyl group significantly increased the in vitro cytotoxicity of 2C phenethylamines drugs in both cell lines, with the NBOMe drugs presenting lower EC50 values when compared to their counterparts. Consistently, our data showed a correlation between the drug's lipophilicity and the EC50 values, except for 2C-B. The 2C-B presented higher cytotoxic effects in both cell lines than mescaline-NBOMe, a result that can be explained by its higher passive permeability. All the NBOMe derivatives were able to cross the blood-brain barrier. Considering metabolic studies, the cytotoxicity of these drugs was shown to be influenced by inhibition of cytochrome P450 (CYP), which suggests a potential role of this enzyme complex, especially CYP3A4 and CYP2D6 isoenzymes in SH-SY5Y cells, in their detoxification or bioactivation. Furthermore, in differentiated SH-SY5Y cells, the drugs were able to induce mitochondrial membrane depolarization, and to disrupt GSH and ATP intracellular levels, these effects being concentration dependent and more pronounced for the NBOMe derivatives. No ROS overproduction was detected for any of the drugs in the tested experimental conditions. A correlation between a drug's lipophilicity and the EC50 values in both cell lines, except for 2C-B, was also obtained. In summary, the introduction of a NBOMe moiety to the parent drugs significantly increases their lipophilicity, brain permeability and cytotoxic effects, with GSH and ATP homeostasis disruption. The inhibition of CYP3A4 and CYP2D6 emphasized that CYP-mediated metabolism impacts the toxicity of these drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Martins
- CIQUP-IMS/Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre s/n, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal (C.F.); (D.C.)
| | - Eva Gil-Martins
- CIQUP-IMS/Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre s/n, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal (C.F.); (D.C.)
- Associate Laboratory i4HB—Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal; (C.d.F.); (F.R.)
- UCIBIO—Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - Fernando Cagide
- CIQUP-IMS/Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre s/n, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal (C.F.); (D.C.)
| | - Catarina da Fonseca
- Associate Laboratory i4HB—Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal; (C.d.F.); (F.R.)
- UCIBIO—Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - Sofia Benfeito
- CIQUP-IMS/Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre s/n, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal (C.F.); (D.C.)
| | - Carlos Fernandes
- CIQUP-IMS/Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre s/n, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal (C.F.); (D.C.)
| | - Daniel Chavarria
- CIQUP-IMS/Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre s/n, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal (C.F.); (D.C.)
| | - Fernando Remião
- Associate Laboratory i4HB—Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal; (C.d.F.); (F.R.)
- UCIBIO—Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - Renata Silva
- Associate Laboratory i4HB—Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal; (C.d.F.); (F.R.)
- UCIBIO—Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - Fernanda Borges
- CIQUP-IMS/Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre s/n, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal (C.F.); (D.C.)
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Waters K. Pharmacologic Similarities and Differences Among Hallucinogens. J Clin Pharmacol 2021; 61 Suppl 2:S100-S113. [PMID: 34396556 DOI: 10.1002/jcph.1917] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2020] [Accepted: 05/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Hallucinogens constitute a unique class of substances that cause changes in the user's thoughts, perceptions, and mood through various mechanisms of action. Although the serotonergic hallucinogens such as lysergic acid diethylamide, psilocybin, and N,N-dimethyltryptamine have been termed the classical hallucinogens, many hallucinogens elicit their actions through other mechanisms such as N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antagonism, opioid receptor agonism, or inhibition of the reuptake of monoamines including serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine. The aim of this article is to compare the pharmacologic similarities and differences among substances within the hallucinogen class and their impact on physical and psychiatric effects. Potential toxicities, including life-threatening and long-term effects, will be reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristin Waters
- School of Pharmacy, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, USA
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Zeifman R, Singhal N, Breslow L, Weissman CR. On the Relationship between Classic Psychedelics and Suicidality: A Systematic Review. ACS Pharmacol Transl Sci 2021; 4:436-451. [PMID: 33860173 PMCID: PMC8033757 DOI: 10.1021/acsptsci.1c00024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Use of classic psychedelics (e.g., psilocybin, ayahuasca, and lysergic acid diethylamide) is increasing, and psychedelic therapy is receiving growing attention as a novel mental health intervention. Suicidality remains a potential safety concern associated with classic psychedelics and is, concurrently, a mental health concern that psychedelic therapy may show promise in targeting. Accordingly, further understanding of the relationship between classic psychedelics and suicidality is needed. Therefore, we conducted a systematic review of the relationship between classic psychedelics (both non-clinical psychedelic use and psychedelic therapy) and suicidality. We identified a total of 64 articles, including 41 articles on the association between non-clinical classic psychedelic use and suicidality and 23 articles on the effects of psychedelic therapy on suicidality. Findings on the association between lifetime classic psychedelic use and suicidality were mixed, with studies finding positive, negative, and no significant association. A small number of reports of suicide and decreased suicidality following non-clinical classic psychedelic use were identified. Several cases of suicide in early psychedelic therapy were identified; however, it was unclear whether this was due to psychedelic therapy itself. In recent psychedelic therapy clinical trials, we found no reports of increased suicidality and preliminary evidence for acute and sustained decreases in suicidality following treatment. We identify some remaining questions and provide suggestions for future research on the association between classic psychedelics and suicidality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard
J. Zeifman
- Department
of Psychology, Ryerson University, Toronto, Ontario M5B 2K3, Canada
| | - Nikhita Singhal
- Department
of Psychiatry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5T 1R8, Canada
| | - Leah Breslow
- Independent
Researcher, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Cory R. Weissman
- Department
of Psychiatry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5T 1R8, Canada
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