Mitral Annular Plane Systolic Excursion as a Predictor of Mortality in Children With Septic Shock

Updates on the clinical integration of point-of-care ultrasound in pediatric emergency medicine

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

There is expanding evidence for point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS) use in pediatric emergency medicine - this review highlights the benefits and challenges in the clinical integration of high-yield POCUS applications. Specifically, it will delve into POCUS applications during resuscitations, controversies of Focused Assessment with Sonography for Trauma (FAST) in pediatric trauma, POCUS-guided procedures, and examples of clinical pathways where POCUS can expedite definitive care.

RECENT FINDINGS

POCUS can enhance diagnostic accuracy and aid in management of pediatric patients in shock and help identify reversible causes during cardiac arrest. The use of the FAST in pediatric blunt abdominal trauma remains nuanced - its proper use requires an integration with clinical findings and an appreciation of its limitations. POCUS has been shown to enhance safety and efficacy of procedures such as nerve blocks, incision & drainage, and intravenous access. Integrating POCUS into pathways for conditions such as intussusception and testicular torsion expedites downstream care.

SUMMARY

POCUS enhances diagnostic efficiency and management in pediatric patients arriving at the ED with undifferentiated shock, cardiac arrest, or trauma. Additionally, POCUS improves procedural success and safety, and is integral to clinical pathways for expediting definitive care for various pediatric emergencies. Future research should continue to focus on the impact of POCUS on patient outcomes, ensuring user competency, and the expansion of POCUS into diverse settings.

Cardiac Magnetic Resonance Studies in a Large Animal Model that Simulates the Cardiac Abnormalities of Human Septic Shock

Background

Septic shock, in humans and in our well-established animal model, is associated with increases in biventricular end diastolic volume (EDV) and decreases in ejection fraction (EF). These abnormalities occur over 2 days and reverse within 10 days. Septic non-survivors do not develop an increase in EDV. The mechanism for this cardiac dysfunction and EDV differences is unknown.

Methods

Purpose-bred beagles randomized to receive intrabronchial Staphylococcus aureus (n=27) or saline (n=6) were provided standard ICU care including sedation, mechanical ventilation, and fluid resuscitation to a pulmonary arterial occlusion pressure of over 10mmHg. No catecholamines were administered. Over 96h, cardiac magnetic resonance imaging, echocardiograms, and invasive hemodynamics were serially performed, and laboratory data was collected. Tissue was obtained at 66h from six septic animals.

Results

From 0-96h after bacterial challenge, septic animals vs. controls had significantly increased left ventricular wall edema (6%) and wall thinning with loss of mass (15%) which was more pronounced at 48h in non-survivors than survivors. On histology, edema was located predominantly in myocytes, the interstitium, and endothelial cells. Edema was associated with significantly worse biventricular function (lower EFs), ventricular-arterial coupling, and circumferential strain. In septic animals, from 0-24h, the EDV decreased from baseline and, despite cardiac filling pressures being similar, decreased significantly more in non-survivors. From 24-48h, all septic animals had increases in biventricular chamber sizes. Survivors biventricular EDVs were significantly greater than baseline and in non-survivors, where biventricular EDVs were not different from baseline. Preload, afterload, or HR differences did not explain these differential serial changes in chamber size.

Conclusion

Systolic and diastolic cardiac dysfunction during sepsis is associated with ventricular wall edema. Rather than differences in preload, afterload, or heart rate, structural alterations to the ventricular wall best account for the volume changes associated with outcome during sepsis. In non-survivors, from 0-24h, sepsis induces a more severe diastolic dysfunction, further decreasing chamber size. The loss of left ventricular mass with wall thinning in septic survivors may, in part explain, the EDV increases from 24-48h. However, these changes continued and even accelerated into the recovery phase consistent with a reparative process rather than ongoing injury.

The effect of myocardial dysfunction on mortality in children with septic shock: a prospective observational study

Pediatric septic shock is defined as progressive multi-organ dysfunction and cardiovascular dysfunction accompanying sepsis. Studies showing myocardial dysfunction associated with pediatric septic shock are very limited. The aim of this study was to evaluate the relationship between myocardial functions calculated by echocardiography, disease severity, and clinical outcomes in children with septic shock. This observational prospective study was conducted in a pediatric intensive care at a university-affiliated tertiary hospital. The patients diagnosed with septic shock between January 2021 and February 2022 were included in the study. The study was conducted with 56 patients. The rate of myocardial dysfunction (systolic and/or diastolic dysfunction) was 50%. Of these, 39.3% (n = 22) had systolic dysfunction, 17.9% (n = 10) had diastolic dysfunction, and 8.9% (n = 5) had both systolic and diastolic dysfunction. PRISM III score (p = 0.004), VIS (p < 0.001), lactate (p = 0.002), CK-MB (p = 0.023), troponin (p = 0.038), EF (p = 0.004) EF z-score (p = 0.003), MAPSE z-score (p = 0.049), TAPSE (p = 0.010), TAPSE z-score (p = 0.003), and mitral valve E/e ´z-score (p = 0.028) were statistically significant difference with mortality. No significant difference was found for mortality with MAPSE (p = 0.090), mitral valve E/A (p = 0.624), and mitral valve E/A z-score (p = 0.327). EF z-score was found to be associated with 30-day mortality (OR = 0,681, 95% CI 0,480 to 0.991, p = 0,045). We found the TAPSE z-score to be the most significant parameter with 30-day mortality (OR = 0,690, 95% CI 0,489 to 0.998, p = 0,032).  Conclusion: We found left ventricular dysfunction associated factor with mortality. TAPSE showing right ventricular dysfunction was found to be the independent risk factor most associated with mortality. What is Known: • Studies showing myocardial dysfunction associated with pediatric septic shock are limited. • Little is known about the use of echocardiography in pediatric septic shock, and there are no specific guidelines for treatment and follow-up in pediatric patients. What is New: • Characteristics, echocardiographic measurements, and outcomes were comprehensively assessed in children with septic shock. • As a result of our analysis, we found that TAPSE, which is easily measured at the bedside, is the most critical parameter in relation to mortality. • We offer recommendations for its use in the follow-up of children with septic shock.

Updates in pediatric ultrasound

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS) has various diagnostic and therapeutic applications in the pediatric acute care setting that have an impact on clinical outcomes.

RECENT FINDINGS

POCUS can improve diagnostic efficiency and expedite management in pediatric patients who present to the emergency department with common complaints such as respiratory distress, abdominal pain, shock, and pain.

SUMMARY

Rapid advancements in POCUS have allowed it to become a powerful tool in pediatric care. As the clinical applications of ultrasound diversify, research is needed to evaluate impacts on healthcare outcomes, delivery, and costs.

Reporting of Social Determinants of Health in Pediatric Sepsis Studies

OBJECTIVE

Standardized, consistent reporting of social determinants of health (SDOH) in studies on children with sepsis would allow for: 1) understanding the association of SDOH with illness severity and outcomes, 2) comparing populations and extrapolating study results, and 3) identification of potentially modifiable socioeconomic factors for policy makers. We, therefore, sought to determine how frequently data on SDOH were reported, which factors were collected and how these factors were defined in studies of sepsis in children.

DATA SOURCES AND SELECTION

We reviewed 106 articles (published between 2005 and 2020) utilized in a recent systematic review on physiologic criteria for pediatric sepsis.

DATA EXTRACTION

Data were extracted by two reviewers on variables that fell within the World Health Organization's SDOH categories.

DATA SYNTHESIS

SDOH were not the primary outcome in any of the included studies. Seventeen percent of articles (18/106) did not report on any SDOH, and a further 36.8% (39/106) only reported on gender/sex. Of the remaining 46.2% of articles, the most reported SDOH categories were preadmission nutritional status (35.8%, 38/106) and race/ethnicity (18.9%, 20/106). However, no two studies used the same definition of the variables reported within each of these categories. Six studies reported on socioeconomic status (3.8%, 6/106), including two from upper-middle-income and four from lower middle-income countries. Only three studies reported on parental education levels (2.8%, 3/106). No study reported on parental job security or structural conflict.

CONCLUSIONS

We found overall low reporting of SDOH and marked variability in categorizations and definitions of SDOH variables. Consistent and standardized reporting of SDOH in pediatric sepsis studies is needed to understand the role these factors play in the development and severity of sepsis, to compare and extrapolate study results between settings and to implement policies aimed at improving socioeconomic conditions related to sepsis.

Prevalence of Cardiac Dysfunction in Malawian Children With Severe Febrile Illness

OBJECTIVES

To investigate the prevalence of left ventricular systolic dysfunction (LVSD) in Malawian children with severe febrile illness and to explore associations between LVSD and mortality and lactate levels.

DESIGN

Prospective observational study.

SETTING

Pediatric ward of a tertiary government referral hospital in Malawi.

PATIENTS

Children between 60 days and 10 years old with severe febrile illness (fever with at least one sign of impaired perfusion plus altered mentation or respiratory distress) were enrolled at admission from October 2017 to February 2018.

INTERVENTIONS

Focused cardiac ultrasound (FoCUS) was performed, and serum lactate was measured for each child at enrollment, with repeat FoCUS the following day. LV systolic function was later categorized as normal, reduced, severely reduced, or hyperdynamic by two pediatric cardiologists blinded to clinical course and outcomes.

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

Fifty-four children were enrolled. LVSD was present in 14 children (25.9%; 95% CI, 15.4-40.3%), of whom three had severely reduced function. Thirty patients (60%) had a lactate greater than 2.5 mmol/L, of which 20 (40%) were markedly elevated (>5 mmol/L). Ten children died during admission (18.5%). Of children who survived, 22.7% had decreased LV systolic function versus 40% of those who died. Dysfunction was not associated with mortality or elevated lactate.

CONCLUSIONS

Cardiac dysfunction may be present in one in four Malawian children with severe febrile illness, and mortality in these patients is especially high. Larger studies are needed to further clarify the role cardiac dysfunction plays in mortality and integrate practical bedside assessments for decision support around individualized resuscitation strategies.

The relation of echo-derived lateral MAPSE to left heart functions and biochemical markers in patients with preserved ejection fraction: Short-term prognostic implications

OBJECTIVE

Mitral annular plane systolic excursion (MAPSE) is a simple way to evaluate-left ventricle (LV) function. Our aim was to explain the relationship of MAPSE with LV function and biochemical markers in patients with preserved ejection fraction (EF), and to determine whether it has an effect on prognosis in echocardiography (echo) practice.

METHODS

Consecutive patients referred to the echo laboratory between November 2020 and March 2021 were included in the study. In addition to conventional parameters, MAPSE of the lateral mitral annulus was measured in all patients. Patients were divided into three groups according to lateral MAPSE: low (<12 mm), relatively preserved (12-15 mm), and high (≥15 mm).

RESULTS

A total of 512 patients with preserved EF were included in the study. MAPSE was low in 44 patients (9%), relatively preserved in 231 patients (45%), and high in 237 patients (46%). The mean age was higher in the low group compared to the other two groups (p < 0.001) and the body mass index was increased in the low group compared to the high group (p = 0.010). Atrial fibrillation and hypertension were more common in patients with low MAPSE. The rate of diastolic dysfunction (DD) and all-cause hospitalization were higher in the low and relatively preserved groups than in the high group (p < 0.001, p = 0.002; respectively). The pro-BNP level and mortality rate were higher in the low group compared to the relatively preserved and high groups (p = 0.007, p = 0.005; respectively). MAPSE was identified as independent predictor of hospitalization (OR: 0.284, 95% CI: 0.093-0.862, p = 0.026) via multivariate analysis and independent predictor of in-hospital mortality (HR: 0.002, 95% CI: 0-0.207, p = 0.008).

CONCLUSIONS

Analysis of LV longitudinal function by echo-derived lateral MAPSE when LV ejection fraction is normal provides important information about DD and related heart failure and may predict prognosis in echo practice.

Criteria for Pediatric Sepsis-A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis by the Pediatric Sepsis Definition Taskforce

OBJECTIVE

To determine the associations of demographic, clinical, laboratory, organ dysfunction, and illness severity variable values with: 1) sepsis, severe sepsis, or septic shock in children with infection and 2) multiple organ dysfunction or death in children with sepsis, severe sepsis, or septic shock.

DATA SOURCES

MEDLINE, Embase, and the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials were searched from January 1, 2004, and November 16, 2020.

STUDY SELECTION

Case-control studies, cohort studies, and randomized controlled trials in children greater than or equal to 37-week-old postconception to 18 years with suspected or confirmed infection, which included the terms "sepsis," "septicemia," or "septic shock" in the title or abstract.

DATA EXTRACTION

Study characteristics, patient demographics, clinical signs or interventions, laboratory values, organ dysfunction measures, and illness severity scores were extracted from eligible articles. Random-effects meta-analysis was performed.

DATA SYNTHESIS

One hundred and six studies met eligibility criteria of which 81 were included in the meta-analysis. Sixteen studies (9,629 patients) provided data for the sepsis, severe sepsis, or septic shock outcome and 71 studies (154,674 patients) for the mortality outcome. In children with infection, decreased level of consciousness and higher Pediatric Risk of Mortality scores were associated with sepsis/severe sepsis. In children with sepsis/severe sepsis/septic shock, chronic conditions, oncologic diagnosis, use of vasoactive/inotropic agents, mechanical ventilation, serum lactate, platelet count, fibrinogen, procalcitonin, multi-organ dysfunction syndrome, Pediatric Logistic Organ Dysfunction score, Pediatric Index of Mortality-3, and Pediatric Risk of Mortality score each demonstrated significant and consistent associations with mortality. Pooled mortality rates varied among high-, upper middle-, and lower middle-income countries for patients with sepsis, severe sepsis, and septic shock (p < 0.0001).

CONCLUSIONS

Strong associations of several markers of organ dysfunction with the outcomes of interest among infected and septic children support their inclusion in the data validation phase of the Pediatric Sepsis Definition Taskforce.

Echocardiographic Parameters and Mortality in Pediatric Sepsis: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

OBJECTIVE

We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis to investigate the prognostic value of echocardiographic parameters in pediatric septic patients.

DATA SOURCES

MEDLINE, PubMed, and EMBASE (last update April 5, 2020).

STUDY SELECTION

Observational studies of pediatric sepsis providing echocardiographic parameters in relation to mortality.

DATA EXTRACTION

Echocardiography data were categorized as those describing left ventricular systolic or diastolic function, right ventricular function, and strain echocardiography parameters. Data from neonates and children were considered separately. Analysis is reported as standardized mean difference and 95% CI.

DATA SYNTHESIS

We included data from 14 articles (n = 5 neonates, n = 9 children). The fractional shortening was the most commonly reported variable (11 studies, n = 555 patients) and we did not identify an association with mortality (standardized mean difference 0.22, 95% CI [-0.02 to 0.47]; p = 0.07, I2 = 28%). In addition, we did not find any association with mortality also for left ventricular ejection fraction (nine studies, n = 417; standardized mean difference 0.06, 95% CI [-0.27 to 0.40]; p = 0.72, I2 = 51%), peak velocity of systolic mitral annular motion determined by tissue Doppler imaging wave (four studies, n = 178; standardized mean difference -0.01, 95% CI [-0.34 to 0.33]; p = 0.97, I2 = 0%), and myocardial performance index (five studies, n = 219; standardized mean difference -0.51, 95% CI [-1.10 to 0.08]; p = 0.09, I2 = 63%). However, in regard to left ventricular diastolic function, there was an association with mortality for higher early wave of transmitral flow/peak velocity of early diastolic mitral annular motion determined by tissue Doppler imaging ratio (four studies, n = 189, standardized mean difference -0.45, 95% CI [-0.80 to -0.10]; p = 0.01, I2 = 0%) or lower peak velocity of early diastolic mitral annular motion determined by tissue Doppler imaging wave (three studies, n = 159; standardized mean difference 0.49, 95% CI [0.13-0.85]; p = 0.008, I2 = 0%). We did not find any association with mortality for early wave of transmitral flow/late (atrial) wave of trans-mitral flow ratio (six studies, n = 273; standardized mean difference 0.28, 95% CI [-0.42 to 0.99]; p = 0.43, I2 = 81%) and peak velocity of systolic mitral annular motion determined by tissue Doppler imaging wave measured at the tricuspid annulus (three studies, n = 148; standardized mean difference -0.18, 95% CI [-0.53 to 0.17]; p = 0.32, I2 = 0%). Only a few studies were conducted with strain echocardiography.

CONCLUSIONS

This meta-analysis of echocardiography parameters in pediatric sepsis failed to find any association between the measures of left ventricular systolic or right ventricular function and mortality. However, mortality was associated with higher early wave of transmitral flow/peak velocity of early diastolic mitral annular motion determined by tissue Doppler imaging or lower peak velocity of early diastolic mitral annular motion determined by tissue Doppler imaging, indicating possible importance of left ventricular diastolic dysfunction. These are preliminary findings because of high clinical heterogeneity in the studies to date.

Myocardial Dysfunction Is Independently Associated With Mortality in Pediatric Septic Shock

OBJECTIVES

Circulatory dysfunction has been associated with mortality in children with septic shock. However, the mortality risk attributable to myocardial dysfunction per se has not been established, and the association between myocardial dysfunction and mortality is confounded by illness severity. The objective was to determine if sepsis-associated myocardial dysfunction defined by low left ventricular ejection fraction or global longitudinal strain is associated with mortality in pediatric septic shock after adjusting for baseline mortality probability.

DESIGN

Retrospective, observational study.

SETTING

Single-center, quaternary-care PICU.

PATIENTS

Children less than 18 years old admitted to the PICU from 2003 to 2018 who had an echocardiogram performed within 48 hours of septic shock identification and Pediatric Sepsis Biomarker Risk Model II data available.

INTERVENTIONS

None.

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

All echocardiograms were reread by a cardiologist blinded to patient data for left ventricular ejection fraction and global longitudinal strain. Low left ventricular ejection fraction was defined as less than 45%, and low global longitudinal strain was defined as greater than z score of -2 for body surface area. Multivariable logistic regression separately analyzed the associations of low left ventricular ejection fraction and low global longitudinal strain with mortality, adjusting for Pediatric Sepsis Biomarker Risk Model II mortality risk. A post hoc logistic regression analyzed the association of left ventricular ejection fraction as a continuous variable with mortality, where linearity was maintained for left ventricular ejection fraction less than 65%. Eighteen percent of 181 children had low left ventricular ejection fraction. After adjusting for baseline mortality risk, low left ventricular ejection fraction remained independently associated with mortality (odds ratio, 4.4 [1.0-19.8]; p = 0.0497). Likewise, left ventricular ejection fraction was associated with mortality (odds ratio, 0.96 [0.93-0.99]; p = 0.037) on multivariable analysis for left ventricular ejection fraction less than 65%. Thirty-six percent of 169 children had low global longitudinal strain, and low global longitudinal strain was also independently associated with mortality (odds ratio, 4.6 [1.2-18.0]; p = 0.027).

CONCLUSIONS

Sepsis-associated myocardial dysfunction, whether defined by low left ventricular ejection fraction or low global longitudinal strain, is an independent risk factor for mortality in pediatric septic shock after accounting for the confounding effects of septic shock severity.

Longitudinal Study of CPK-MB and Echocardiographic Measures of Myocardial Dysfunction in Pediatric Sepsis: Are Patients with Shock Different from Those without?

Background

Sepsis-induced myocardial dysfunction has implications on outcome. For lack of echocardiography in resource-limited settings, myocardial biomarkers may be an alternative monitoring tool.

Objective

This study was planned to explore the longitudinal behavior of creatine phosphokinase-MB (CPK-MB) in children with sepsis with and without shock, and its correlation with clinical and echocardiographic parameters over the first 10 days.

Design

Prospective observational study.

Setting

Tertiary care hospital in a lower-middle-income economy of South Asia.

Patients

Children (3 months to 12 years) with nonshock sepsis (NSS) (n = 40) and septic shock survivors (SSSs) (n = 40) after optimal resuscitation. Patients with catecholamine refractory shock, preexisting heart disease, and cardiorespiratory event within the past 1 month were excluded from the study.

Measurements and main results

Pediatric logistic organ dysfunction (PeLOD) score, vasoactive inotrope score (VIS), CPK-MB, and echocardiographic measures of myocardial function were recorded on days 1, 3, 7, and 10. Echocardiography was repeated at 1 month. Both groups were similar at baseline. The SSSs had higher CPK-MB (180 vs 53 IU/L; p < 0.001) and PeLOD score (2 ± 0.4 vs 11.7 ± 5.1, p < 0.001) on day 1 compared to the NSS children. More than half of the SSS and none of the NSS patients had myocardial dysfunction. Reduction in CPK-MB over 10 days correlated well with improvement in PeLOD (p < 0.01), VIS (p = 0.04), and echocardiographic measures of myocardial dysfunction (p < 0.05) among SSSs. At 1 month follow-up, all had normal echocardiography.

Conclusion

The SSSs had markedly elevated CPK-MB, and its fall paralleled the improvement in clinical status and myocardial dysfunctions. The CPK-MB could be a potential monitoring tool for septic cardiomyopathy in resource-limited settings.

How to cite this article

Baranwal AK, Deepthi G, Rohit MK, Jayashree M, Angurana SK, Kumar-M P. Longitudinal Study of CPK-MB and Echocardiographic Measures of Myocardial Dysfunction in Pediatric Sepsis: Are Patients with Shock Different from Those without? Indian J Crit Care Med 2020;24(2):109–115.

Interventions for Pediatric Sepsis and Their Impact on Outcomes: A Brief Review

In the current era, pediatric sepsis remains a public health problem of significant prevalence and impact. With mortality rates practically unchanged over the years, this review hopes to briefly summarize the epidemiology and the current interventions for pediatric sepsis and point towards possible areas of improvement. Most pediatric studies of sepsis are either small, retrospective or observational. Given information technology spreading across country, and a stronger presence of clinical networks, development of multicenter prospective studies over the next decade should enable better treatments for pediatric sepsis, and improved outcomes.