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von Rhein M, Chaouch A, Oros V, Manzano S, Gualco G, Sidler M, Laasner U, Dey M, Dratva J, Seiler M. The effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on pediatric emergency department utilization in three regions in Switzerland. Int J Emerg Med 2024; 17:64. [PMID: 38755579 PMCID: PMC11097595 DOI: 10.1186/s12245-024-00640-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2023] [Accepted: 05/04/2024] [Indexed: 05/18/2024] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE The COVID-19 pandemic was associated with a decrease in emergency department (ED) visits. However, contradictory, and sparse data regarding children could not yet answer the question, how pediatric ED utilization evolved throughout the pandemic. Our objectives were to investigate the impact of the pandemic in three language regions of Switzerland by analyzing trends over time, describe regional differences, and address implications for future healthcare. METHODS We conducted a retrospective, longitudinal cohort study at three Swiss tertiary pediatric EDs (March 1st, 2018-February 28th, 2022), analyzing the numbers of ED visits (including patients` age, triage categories, and urgent vs. non-urgent cases). The impact of COVID-19 related non-pharmaceutical interventions (NPIs) on pediatric ED utilization was assessed by interrupted time series (ITS) modelling. RESULTS Based on 304'438 ED visits, we found a drop of nearly 50% at the onset of NPIs, followed by a gradual recovery. This primarily affected children 0-4 years, and both non-urgent and urgent cases. However, the decline in urgent visits appeared to be more pronounced in two centers compared to a third, where also hospitalization rates did not decrease significantly during the pandemic. A subgroup analysis showed a significant decrease in respiratory and gastrointestinal diseases, and an increase in the proportion of trauma patients during the pandemic. CONCLUSIONS The COVID-19 pandemic had substantial effects on number and reasons for pediatric ED visits, particularly among children 0-4 years. Despite equal regulatory conditions, the utilization dynamics varied markedly between the three regions, highlighting the multifactorial modification of pediatric ED utilization during the pandemic. Furthermore, future policy decisions should take regional differences into account.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael von Rhein
- Child Development Center, University Children`s Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
| | - Aziz Chaouch
- Department of Epidemiology and Health Systems, Center for Primary Care and Public Health (Unisanté), University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Vivian Oros
- University Children`S Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Sergio Manzano
- Pediatric Emergency Department, Geneva University Hospitals, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Gianluca Gualco
- Pediatric Emergency Departement, Clinics of Pediatrics, Institute of Pediatrics of Southern Switzerland, EOC, Bellinzona, Switzerland
| | | | | | - Michelle Dey
- School of Health Science, ZHAW Zurich University of Applied Sciences, Winterthur, Switzerland
| | - Julia Dratva
- School of Health Science, ZHAW Zurich University of Applied Sciences, Winterthur, Switzerland
- Medical Faculty, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Michelle Seiler
- Pediatric Emergency Department, University Children`S Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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Kim G, Han S, Bae SP, Lee J, Heo NH, Lee D, Kim HJ. Lactate Levels as a Predictor of Emergency Department Revisits in Infants With Acute Bronchiolitis. Pediatr Emerg Care 2024:00006565-990000000-00443. [PMID: 38713833 DOI: 10.1097/pec.0000000000003220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/09/2024]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE This study aimed to identify predictive biomarkers for unscheduled emergency department (ED) revisits within 24 hours of discharge in infants diagnosed with acute bronchiolitis (AB). METHODS A retrospective observational study was conducted on infants diagnosed with AB who visited 3 emergency medical centers between January 2020 and December 2022. The study excluded infants with comorbidities, congenital diseases, and prematurity and infants who revisited the ED after 24 hours of discharge. Demographic data, vital signs, and laboratory results were collected from the medical records. Univariable and multivariable logistic regression analyses were performed on factors with P of less than 0.1 in univariable analysis. Receiver operator curve analysis was used to assess the accuracy of lactate measurements in predicting ED revisits within 24 hours of discharge. RESULTS Out of 172 participants, 100 were in the revisit group and 72 in the discharge group. The revisit group was significantly younger and exhibited higher lactate levels, lower pH values, and higher pCO2 levels compared to the discharge group. Univariable logistic regression identified several factors associated with revisits. Multivariable analysis found that only lactate was a variable correlated with predicting ED revisits (odds ratio, 18.020; 95% confidence interval [CI], 5.764-56.334). The receiver operator curve analysis showed an area under the curve of 0.856, with an optimal lactate cutoff value of 2.15. CONCLUSION Lactate value in infants diagnosed with AB were identified as a potential indicator of predicting unscheduled ED revisits within 24 hours of discharge. The predictive potential of lactate levels holds promise for enhancing prognosis prediction, reducing health care costs, and alleviating ED overcrowding. However, given the study's limitations, a more comprehensive prospective investigation is recommended to validate these findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gihyeon Kim
- From the Department of Emergency Medicine, Soonchunhyang University Cheonan Hospital, Cheonan, Republic of Korea
| | - Sangsoo Han
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Soonchunhyang University Bucheon Hospital, Bucheon, Republic of Korea
| | - Seong Phil Bae
- Department of Pediatrics, Soonchunhyang University Hospital, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Jungwon Lee
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Soonchunhyang University Gumi Hospital, Gumi, Republic of Korea
| | - Nam Hun Heo
- Department of Biostatistics, Clinical Trial Center, Soonchunhyang University Cheonan Hospital, Cheonan, Republic of Korea
| | - Dongwook Lee
- From the Department of Emergency Medicine, Soonchunhyang University Cheonan Hospital, Cheonan, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyun Joon Kim
- From the Department of Emergency Medicine, Soonchunhyang University Cheonan Hospital, Cheonan, Republic of Korea
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Rogachev S, Hashavya S, Rekhtman D, Schiesel G, Benenson-Weinberg T, Weiser G, Gordon O, Gross I. Return Visits in Infants Younger Than 90 Days Presenting to the Pediatric Emergency Department for Fever. Clin Pediatr (Phila) 2024:99228241234963. [PMID: 38415681 DOI: 10.1177/00099228241234963] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/29/2024]
Abstract
Fever in infants presenting to pediatric emergency departments (PEDs) often results in significant return visits (RVs). This retrospective study aimed to identify factors associated with RVs in febrile infants aged 0 to 90 days. Data from infants presenting to PED between 2018 and 2021 and returning within 7 days (RV group) were compared to age-matched febrile infants without RVs (control group). Each group had 95 infants with similar demographics and medical history. RVs were primarily due to positive cultures and persistent fever. The control group had higher initial hospitalization rates, longer PED stays, and increased antibiotic treatment. Prevalence of serious bacterial infections (SBIs) did not significantly differ. Higher hospitalization, prolonged PED stays, and initial antibiotic treatment were associated with reduced RV incidence despite similar SBI rates. Return visits in infants <90 days were primarily driven by persistent fever and positive cultures. Addressing these factors through targeted parental education and improved care protocols may reduce RVs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonia Rogachev
- Department of Pediatric Emergency Medicine, Hadassah Medical Center, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Saar Hashavya
- Department of Pediatric Emergency Medicine, Hadassah Medical Center, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - David Rekhtman
- Department of Pediatric Emergency Medicine, Hadassah Medical Center, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Gali Schiesel
- Department of Pediatric Emergency Medicine, Hadassah Medical Center, Jerusalem, Israel
| | | | - Giora Weiser
- Department of Pediatric Emergency Medicine, Shaare Zedek Medical Center, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Oren Gordon
- Infectious Disease Unit, Department of Pediatrics, Faculty of Medicine, Hadassah Medical Center, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Itai Gross
- Department of Pediatric Emergency Medicine, Hadassah Medical Center, Jerusalem, Israel
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Seers T, Reynard C, Martin GP, Body R. Development and Internal Validation of a Multivariable Prediction Model to Predict Repeat Attendances in the Pediatric Emergency Department: A Retrospective Cohort Study. Pediatr Emerg Care 2024; 40:16-21. [PMID: 37195679 DOI: 10.1097/pec.0000000000002975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Unplanned reattendances to the pediatric emergency department (PED) occur commonly in clinical practice. Multiple factors influence the decision to return to care, and understanding risk factors may allow for better design of clinical services. We developed a clinical prediction model to predict return to the PED within 72 hours from the index visit. METHODS We retrospectively reviewed all attendances to the PED of Royal Manchester Children's Hospital between 2009 and 2019. Attendances were excluded if they were admitted to hospital, aged older than 16 years or died in the PED. Variables were collected from Electronic Health Records reflecting triage codes. Data were split temporally into a training (80%) set for model development and a test (20%) set for internal validation. We developed the prediction model using LASSO penalized logistic regression. RESULTS A total of 308,573 attendances were included in the study. There were 14,276 (4.63%) returns within 72 hours of index visit. The final model had an area under the receiver operating characteristic curve of 0.64 (95% confidence interval, 0.63-0.65) on temporal validation. The calibration of the model was good, although with some evidence of miscalibration at the high extremes of the risk distribution. After-visit diagnoses codes reflecting a nonspecific problem ("unwell child") were more common in children who went on to reattend. CONCLUSIONS We developed and internally validated a clinical prediction model for unplanned reattendance to the PED using routinely collected clinical data, including markers of socioeconomic deprivation. This model allows for easy identification of children at the greatest risk of return to PED.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tim Seers
- From the Emergency Department, Manchester Royal Infirmary, Manchester University NHS Foundation Trust, Manchester, United Kingdom
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Namgung M, Lee DH, Bae SJ, Chung HS, Park JY, Kim K, Lee CA, Kim DH, Kim EC, Lim JY, Han SS, Choi YH. A Comparison of Emergency Department Revisit Rates of Pediatric Patients between Pre-COVID-19 and COVID-19 Periods. CHILDREN 2022; 9:children9071003. [PMID: 35883987 PMCID: PMC9322694 DOI: 10.3390/children9071003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2022] [Revised: 06/16/2022] [Accepted: 06/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Unscheduled revisits to emergency departments (EDs) are important because they indicate the quality of emergency care. However, the characteristics of pediatric patients visiting EDs changed during the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic, and these changes may have affected their revisit patterns. Therefore, we aimed to compare the ED revisit patterns of pediatric patients between the pre-COVID-19 and COVID-19 periods. This retrospective multicenter study included patients aged below 18 years who visited the ED in the pre-COVID-19 and COVID-19 periods. ED revisit rates were analyzed using five age groups and three visit-revisit intervals. In the pre-COVID-19 period, the revisit rates decreased with increasing age. In the COVID-19 period, the revisit rates were the lowest for the group aged 4–6 years, and the rates increased for those aged ≥7 years. In conclusion, there were changes in the patterns of revisit rates of pediatric patients according to age between the pre-COVID-19 and COVID-19 periods. Therefore, it is necessary to identify the reasons for revisits according to age and establish strategies to reduce the revisit rates of pediatric patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Myeong Namgung
- Department of Emergency Medicine, College of Medicine, Chung-Ang University, Seoul 06973, Korea;
| | - Dong Hoon Lee
- Department of Emergency Medicine, College of Medicine, Chung-Ang University Gwangmyeong Hospital, Chung-Ang University, Gwangmyeong-si 14353, Korea; (S.J.B.); (H.S.C.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +82-2-2610-6751
| | - Sung Jin Bae
- Department of Emergency Medicine, College of Medicine, Chung-Ang University Gwangmyeong Hospital, Chung-Ang University, Gwangmyeong-si 14353, Korea; (S.J.B.); (H.S.C.)
| | - Ho Sub Chung
- Department of Emergency Medicine, College of Medicine, Chung-Ang University Gwangmyeong Hospital, Chung-Ang University, Gwangmyeong-si 14353, Korea; (S.J.B.); (H.S.C.)
| | - Ji Young Park
- Department of Pediatrics, College of Medicine, Chung-Ang University, Seoul 06973, Korea;
| | - Keon Kim
- Department of Emergency Medicine, College of Medicine, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 07804, Korea;
| | - Choung Ah Lee
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Hallym University Dongtan Sacred Heart Hospital, Hwaseong-si 18450, Korea;
| | - Duk Ho Kim
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Eulji University, Seoul 01830, Korea;
| | - Eui Chung Kim
- CHA Bundang Medical Center, Department of Emergency Medicine, Seongnam-si 13496, Korea;
| | - Jee Yong Lim
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Seoul St. Mary’s Hospital, Seoul 06591, Korea;
| | - Sang Soo Han
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Soonchunhyang University Bucheon Hospital, Bucheon-si 14584, Korea;
| | - Yoon Hee Choi
- Department of Emergency Medicine, College of Medicine, Ewha Womans University Mokdong Hospital, Seoul 07985, Korea;
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To embrace and be present: The lived experiences of nurse-led consultations in Sweden from the perspective of pediatric nurses. J Pediatr Nurs 2022; 65:e28-e34. [PMID: 35184937 DOI: 10.1016/j.pedn.2022.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2021] [Revised: 01/22/2022] [Accepted: 02/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE This study describes the lived experiences of nurse-led consultations in pediatric emergency departments from the perspective of pediatric nurses. DESIGN AND METHODS A descriptive qualitative study with a reflective lifeworld research approach was used to explore nurses' experiences of nurse-led consultations. The study was conducted through meaning-oriented individual interviews with ten pediatric nurses. RESULTS The results are grouped into four themes: (a) embracing the encounter and being touched by it; (b) having time to be present and committed; (c) having the ability and trusting in one's intuition; and (d) negotiating between families' wishes and the organization's guidelines. CONCLUSIONS Our study shows that nurse-led consultations conducted in separate nurse-led reception areas promote a positive experience of the consultations from the perspective of pediatric nurses. In a nurse-led consultation, a nurse's confidence in their ability to provide care is connected to time, broad skills and knowledge, and a supportive organization. PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS As the rising global population increases the demand for healthcare services, pediatric emergency departments must streamline their services to provide patient-safe, high-quality health care. Nurse-led consultations are an effective means of meeting these growing demands. This study contributes to an understanding of pediatric nurses' experiences at both the individual level and a more structured level, namely that families' wishes and an organization's guidelines do not always coincide.
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Wennberg-Capellades L, Feijoo-Cid M, Llaurado-Serra M, Portell M. Feeling Informed Versus Being Informed: Mixed-Methods Analysis of Family Perceptions and Behavior Following a Pediatric Emergency Department Visit. J Pediatr Nurs 2021; 60:e87-e95. [PMID: 33840567 DOI: 10.1016/j.pedn.2021.03.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2020] [Revised: 03/26/2021] [Accepted: 03/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To examine perceptions of family-centered care, satisfaction, and quality of communication with health professionals during a pediatric emergency department visit, and to evaluate the perceived usefulness of the information received and whether provider treatment recommendations were followed after discharge. DESIGN Embedded mixed methods design with two concurrent phases. Participants in phase 1 were 385 adult relatives of children (age 6 days-17 years, mean 5.0 years, SD 4.5) seen in a pediatric emergency department. On the day of the visit, relatives completed questionnaires exploring perceptions of family-centered care, satisfaction (CSQ-8), and quality of communication with professionals (ad hoc instrument). For phase 2, we conducted daily structured telephone interviews with 37 of these parents over the six consecutive days following the emergency visit. RESULTS Satisfaction with the visit was significantly related to the perception of family-centered care (B = 0.25; 95% CI [0.20, 0.29]; p < .001). Follow-up interviews revealed that 45.9% (n = 17) of families did not follow the prescribed treatment and 32.4% (n = 12) made a further appointment with their primary care pediatrician. Qualitative analysis suggested that families lacked certain information from care providers. CONCLUSIONS Elements of a family-centered approach were rated positively and families believed that the information they received was useful. Importantly, more than half of the families who were followed up by telephone had doubts about provider treatment recommendations. PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS Family-centered care in the pediatric emergency department could enhance communication and help to ensure that treatment recommendations are followed at home.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laia Wennberg-Capellades
- Nursing Department, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universitat Internacional de Catalunya, Spain
| | - Maria Feijoo-Cid
- Nursing Department, Faculty of Medicine, Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona, Spain; Grup de REcerca Multidisciplinar en SAlut i Societat (GREMSAS), (2017 SGR 917), Spain.
| | - Mireia Llaurado-Serra
- Nursing Department, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universitat Internacional de Catalunya, Spain
| | - Mariona Portell
- Department of Psychobiology and Methodology of Health Sciences, Faculty of Psychology, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain
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Portillo EN, Stack AM, Monuteaux MC, Curt A, Perron C, Lee LK. Association of limited English proficiency and increased pediatric emergency department revisits. Acad Emerg Med 2021; 28:1001-1011. [PMID: 34431157 DOI: 10.1111/acem.14359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2021] [Revised: 07/12/2021] [Accepted: 07/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Limited English proficiency (LEP) is a risk factor for health care inequity and an important focus for improving communication and care quality. This study examines the association between LEP and pediatric emergency department (ED) revisits. METHODS This was a retrospective, cross-sectional study of patients 0 to 21 years old discharged home after an initial visit from an academic, tertiary care pediatric ED from January 1, 2017, to June 30, 2018. We calculated rates of ED revisits within 72 h resulting in discharge or hospitalization and assessed rate differences between LEP and English-proficient (EP) patients. Multivariable logistic regression models examined the association between revisits and LEP status controlling for age, race, ethnicity, triage acuity, clinical complexity, and ED arrival time. Sensitivity models including insurance were also conducted. RESULTS There were 63,601 index visits in the study period; 12,986 (20%) were by patients with LEP. There were 2,387 (3.8%) revisits within 72 h of initial ED visit. Among LEP and EP patient visits, there were 4.53 and 3.55 revisits/100 initial ED visits, respectively (rate difference = 0.97, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.58 to 1.37). In the multivariable analyses, LEP was associated with increased odds of revisits resulting in discharge (odds ratio [OR] = 1.15, 95% CI = 1.01 to 1.30) and in hospitalization (OR = 1.28, 95% CI = 1.03 to 1.58). Sensitivity analyses additionally adjusting for insurance status attenuated these results. CONCLUSIONS These results suggest that LEP was associated with increased pediatric ED revisits. Improved understanding of language barrier effects on clinical care is important for decreasing health care disparities in the ED.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elyse N. Portillo
- Section of Emergency Medicine Baylor College of MedicineTexas Children’s Hospital Houston Texas USA
| | - Anne M. Stack
- Division of Emergency Medicine Boston Children’s Hospital Boston Massachusetts USA
| | - Michael C. Monuteaux
- Division of Emergency Medicine Boston Children’s Hospital Boston Massachusetts USA
| | - Alexa Curt
- Division of Emergency Medicine Boston Children’s Hospital Boston Massachusetts USA
| | - Catherine Perron
- Division of Emergency Medicine Boston Children’s Hospital Boston Massachusetts USA
| | - Lois K. Lee
- Division of Emergency Medicine Boston Children’s Hospital Boston Massachusetts USA
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Ehwerhemuepha L, Yu PT, Guner YS, Wallace E, Feaster W. A Nested Mixed Effects Multicenter Model Examining the Risk Factors for Pediatric Trauma Return Visits Within 72 Hours. J Surg Res 2020; 257:370-378. [PMID: 32892133 DOI: 10.1016/j.jss.2020.08.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2020] [Revised: 07/15/2020] [Accepted: 08/02/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Return visits within 72 h are an important metric in evaluating the performance of emergency rooms. This has not been well studied in the pediatric trauma population. We sought to determine novel risk factors for return visits to the emergency department (ED) after trauma that may assist in identifying patients most at risk of revisit. METHODS We used the Cerner Health Facts Database to retrieve data from 34 EDs across the United States that care for pediatric trauma patients aged <15 y. The data consist of 610,845 patients and 816,571 ED encounters. We retrieved variables encompassing demographics, payor, current and past health care resource utilization, trauma diagnoses, other diagnoses/comorbidities, medications, and surgical procedures. We built a nested mixed effects logistic regression model to provide statistical inference on the return visits. RESULTS Traumas resulting from burns and corrosion, injuries to the shoulder and arms, injuries to the hip and legs, and trauma to the head and neck are all associated with increased odds of returning to the ED. Patients suffering from poisoning relating to drugs and other biological substances and patients with trauma to multiple body regions have reduced odds of returning to the ED. Longer ED length of stay and prior health care utilization (ED or inpatient) are associated with increased odds of a return visit. The sex of the patient and payor had a statistically significant effect on the risk of a return visit to the ED within 72 h of discharge. CONCLUSIONS Certain traumas expose patients to an increased risk for return visits to the ED and, as a result, provide opportunity for improved quality of care. Targeted interventions that include education, observation holds, or a decision to hospitalize instead of discharge home may help improve patient outcomes and decrease the rate of ED returns. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE III (Prognostic and Epidemiology).
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Affiliation(s)
- Louis Ehwerhemuepha
- CHOC Children's, Orange, California; Chapman University School of Computational and Data Science, Orange, California.
| | - Peter T Yu
- Division of Pediatric Surgery, Children's Hospital of Orange County and Department of Surgery, University of California Irvine, Orange, California
| | - Yigit S Guner
- Division of Pediatric Surgery, Children's Hospital of Orange County and Department of Surgery, University of California Irvine, Orange, California
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