Screening and early detection of lung cancer

[Predictive factors of complications during CT-guided transthoracic biopsy]

INTRODUCTION

CT-guided transthoracic core-needle biopsy (TTNB) is frequently used for the diagnosis of lung nodules. The aim of this study is to describe TTNBs' complications and to investigate predictive factors of complications.

METHODS

All consecutive TTNBs performed in three centers between 2006 and 2012 were included. Binary logistic regression was used for multivariate analysis.

RESULTS

Overall, 970 TTNBs were performed in 929 patients. The complication rate was 34% (life-threatening complication in 6%). The most frequent complications were pneumothorax (29% included 4% which required chest-tube) and hemoptysis (5%). The mortality rate was 0.1% (n=1). In multivariate analysis, predictive factor for a complication was small target size (AOR=0.984; 95% CI [0.976-0.992]; P<0.001). This predictive factor was also found for occurrence of life-threatening complication (AOR=0.982; [0.965-0.999]; P=0.037), of pneumothorax (AOR=0.987; [0.978-0.995]; P=0.002) and of hemoptysis (AOR=0.973; [0.951-0.997]; P=0.024).

CONCLUSION

One complication occurred in one-third of TTNBs. The proportion of life-threatening complication was 6%. A small lesion size was predictive of complication occurrence.

Bronchoalveolar Lavage Proteomics in Patients with Suspected Lung Cancer

Lung cancer configures as one of the deadliest types of cancer. The future implementation of early screening methods such as exhaled breath condensate analysis and low dose computed tomography (CT) as an alternative to current chest imaging based screening will lead to an increased burden on bronchoscopy units. New approaches for improvement of diagnosis in bronchoscopy units, regarding patient management, are likely to have clinical impact in the future. Diagnostic approaches to address mortality of lung cancer include improved early detection and stratification of the cancers according to its prognosis and further response to drug treatment. In this study, we performed a detailed mass spectrometry based proteome analysis of acellular bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid samples on an observational prospective cohort consisting of 90 suspected lung cancer cases which were followed during two years. The thirteen new lung cancer cases diagnosed during the follow up time period clustered, based on liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) data, with lung cancer cases at the time of BAL collection. Hundred and thirty-tree potential biomarkers were identified showing significantly differential expression when comparing lung cancer versus non-lung cancer. The regulated biomarkers showed a large overlap with biomarkers detected in tissue samples.

Photoacoustic Spectroscopy for the Determination of Lung Cancer Biomarkers-A Preliminary Investigation

With 1.6 million deaths per year, lung cancer is one of the leading causes of death worldwide. One reason for this high number is the absence of a preventive medical examination method. Many diagnoses occur in a late cancer stage with a low survival rate. An early detection could significantly decrease the mortality. In recent decades, certain substances in human breath have been linked to certain diseases. Different studies show that it is possible to distinguish between lung cancer patients and a healthy control group by analyzing the volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in their breath. We developed a sensor based on photoacoustic spectroscopy for six of the most relevant VOCs linked to lung cancer. As a radiation source, the sensor uses an optical-parametric oscillator (OPO) in a wavelength region from 3.2 µm to 3.5 µm. The limits of detection for a single substance range between 5 ppb and 142 ppb. We also measured high resolution absorption spectra of the biomarkers compared to the data currently available from the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) database, which is the basis of any selective spectroscopic detection. Future lung cancer screening devices could be based on the further development of this sensor.

Use of FTIR spectroscopy and PCA-LDC analysis to identify cancerous lesions within the human colon

Colorectal cancer constitutes 33% of all cancer morbidity, so the research of the new methods for colorectal cancer diagnosis and chemotherapy monitoring is gaining its momentum. Diagnostic instruments are being sought, which enable the detection of single malignant cells based on the analysis of tissue material potentially reusable at further stages of diagnostic management. The most common approach to tissue specimen processing is paraffin-embedding. Yet, paraffin may cause background noise in spectroscopic measurements with the wavenumber ranging between 900cm^-1 and 3500cm^-1. However, the study by Depciuch et al. (2016) proved that appropriate specimen processing and paraffin-embedding technique as well as a strict measurement methodology may eliminate paraffin vibrations. As a result, spectroscopic measurements may become a reliable and precise method for the diagnosis and treatment monitoring in patients with colorectal cancer as long as the high standards of specimen processing are maintained. Chemotherapy is the main medical treatment in colorectal cancer. Unfortunately, the absence of tools which enable monitoring its efficacy leads to the partial response or non-response frequently seen in affected patients. Hence, diagnostic instruments are also being sought capable of monitoring treatment efficacy so as to enable early changes of chemotherapy regimen thus increasing the chance of cure. The paper aims at comparing the results of FTIR (Fourier Transform Infrared) spectroscopy in several types of colon tissue: healthy colon, cancerous colon, post-chemotherapy colon and healthy surgical margin of colon cancer sample. The obtained FTIR spectra along with the Principal Component Analysis-Linear Discriminant Analysis (PCA-LDC) as well as bandwidth analysis of the primary amide region revealed some differences between the spectra of healthy tissues as compared to cancerous tissues (pre- or post-chemotherapy). Apart from confirming that FTIR spectroscopy is a good source of information on the composition of analysed samples, this fact supports its application as a tool to facilitate understanding the pathophysiology of various conditions and to monitor efficacy of chemotherapy in cancer patients.

Differential diagnosis of lung cancer, its metastasis and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease based on serum Vegf, Il-8 and MMP-9

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) patients are at higher risk of developing lung cancer and its metastasis, but no suitable biomarker has been reported for differential diagnosis of these patients. Levels of serum biomarkers (VEGF, IL-8, MMP-9 and MMP-2) were analyzed in these patients, which were compared with healthy donors (HD). Levels of VEGF (P < 0.005) and MMP-9 (P < 0.05) were significantly higher in COPD patients than HD. Compared to HD, a decrease in IL-8 (~8.1 folds; P < 0.0001) but an increase in MMP-9 (~1.6 folds; P < 0.05) levels were observed in the lung cancer patients. Cancer patients showed significantly (P < 0.005) lower levels of serum VEGF (1.9 folds) and IL-8 (~9 folds) than the COPD patients. VEGF level was significantly higher (2.6 folds; P < 0.0005) in metastatic than non-metastatic cancer patients. However, MMP-2 didn't show significant variation in these patients. The Youden's index (YI) values for lung cancer diagnosis in HD using IL-8 was 0.55 with 83.3% overall accuracy. VEGF was able to diagnose COPD in HD with better YI (0.38) and overall accuracy (70.6%). IL-8 was able to diagnose cancer in COPD patients and HD with YI values of 0.35, 0.55 with 71% and 83.3% overall accuracy, respectively.

CT screening for lung cancer: Is the evidence strong enough?

The prevailing questions at this time in both the public mind and the clinical establishment is, do we have sufficient evidence to implement lung cancer Computed Tomography (CT) screening in Europe? If not, what is outstanding? This review addresses the twelve major areas, which are critical to any decision to implement CT screening and where we need to assess whether we have sufficient evidence to proceed to a recommendation for implementation in Europe. The readiness level of these twelve categories in 2015 have been with colour coded, where green indicates we have sufficient evidence, amber is borderline evidence and red requires further evidence. Recruitment from the 'Hard to Reach' community still remains at red, while mortality data, cost effectiveness and screening interval are all categorised as amber. The integration of smoking cessation into CT screening programmes is still considered to be category amber. The US Preventive Services Task Force have recommended that CT screening is implemented in the USA utilising the NLST criteria, apart from continuing screening to 80 years of age. The cost effectiveness of the NLST was calculated to be $81,000/QALY, however, its well recognised that the costs of medical care in the USA, is far higher than that of Europe. Medicare have agreed to cover the cost of screening but have stipulated a number of stringent requirements for inclusion. To date we do not have good CT screening mortality data available in Europe and eagerly await the publication of the NELSON trial data in 2016 and then the pooled UKLS and NELSON data thereafter. However in the meantime we should start planning for implementation in Europe, especially in the areas of the radiological service provision and accreditation, as well as identifying novel mechanisms to recruit from the hardest to reach communities.

Exhaled breath analysis in suspected cases of non-small-cell lung cancer: a cross-sectional study

Lung cancer is one of the most frequently diagnosed cancers worldwide and is still the leading cause of cancer-related deaths. There is a considerable interest in finding diagnostic methods in the disease's earliest stages. A complementary approach to imaging techniques could be provided by exhaled breath gas phase and exhaled breath condensate (EBC) analysis. The aim of this study was to quantify various biomarkers in the exhaled breath gas phase and EBC in suspected cases of non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC). The study involved 138 subjects with suspected lung cancer, 71 of whom had a subsequent diagnosis of NSCLC. The diagnostic power of a combination of hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂)-EBC, and exhaled pentane, 2-methyl pentane, hexane, ethyl benzene, heptanal, trans-2-nonenal in distinguishing NSCLC and non-NSCLC subjects was poor-to-fair (area under the curve (AUC) = 0.68), similar to that of smoking history alone (expressed as pack-years, AUC = 0.70); a further improvement was observed when smoking history was combined with exhaled compounds (AUC = 0.80). The diagnostic power was increased in those patients with little or no past smoke exposure (AUC = 0.92) or where past smoke exposure was up to 30 pack-years (AUC = 0.85). Exhaled substances had a good accuracy in discriminating suspected cancerous cases only in those subjects with a modest smoking history (≤ 30 pack-years), but the inclusion of other exhaled biomarkers may increase the overall accuracy, regardless of tobacco smoke.

CpG island hypermethylation as a biomarker for the early detection of lung cancer

Lung cancer is the most frequent cause of cancer-related deaths and causes over one million deaths worldwide each year. Despite significant strides in the diagnosis and treatment of lung cancer, the prognosis is extremely poor, with the overall 5-year survival rates still remaining around 15 %. This is largely due to occult metastatic dissemination, which appears in approximately two-thirds of patients at the time of detection. Thus, the development of efficient diagnostic methods to enable the early detection of cancer for these patients is clearly imperative.One promising approach is the identification of lung cancer-specific biomarkers at an early stage. The de novo methylation of CpG islands within the promoters of tumor suppressor genes is one of the most frequently acquired epigenetic changes during the pathogenesis of lung cancer and usually associated with transcriptional downregulation of a gene. The analysis of DNA methylation patterns in sputum, bronchial fluid, plasma, or serum could become a powerful tool for the accurate and early diagnosis of lung cancer with unparalleled specificity and sensitivity.

Serum unsaturated free Fatty acids: potential biomarkers for early detection and disease progression monitoring of non-small cell lung cancer

Background: Lung cancer (LC) is the deadliest cancer, with earlier stage patients having a better opportunity of long-term survival. The goal of this study is to screen less-invasive and efficient biomarkers for early detection of non-small cell LC (NSCLC).

Material and Methods: We performed the simultaneous quantitative detection of six serum unsaturated free fatty acids (FFAs, C_16:1, C_18:3, C_18:2, C_18:1, C_20:4, and C_22:6) from 317 healthy controls, 78 patients with benign lung diseases (BLD), and 202 patients with NSCLC using chip-based direct-infusion nanoelectrospray ionization-Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry (CBDInanoESI-FTICR MS) in the negative ion mode. Multiple point internal standard calibration curves between the concentration ratios of individual fatty acids to internal standards (ISs, C_17:1 as IS of C_16:1, C_18:3, C_18:2, and C_18:1 and C_21:0 as IS of C_20:4 and C_22:6) and their corresponding intensity ratios were constructed, with correlation coefficient of > 0.99. Mann-Whitney U test was employed to compare the differences in the levels of the FFAs between the patients and healthy controls.

Results: Significantly decreased levels of the FFAs in NSCLC patients were observed compared with healthy controls and BLD patients. Receiver operating characteristic curve analysis indicated that a combination of C_16:1, C_18:1, C_18:3, C_18:2, C_20:4, and C_22:6 could excellently differentiate patients with early-stage NSCLC from healthy controls plus BLD patients, with an AUC value of 0.933, a sensitivity of 84.2%, and a specificity of 89.1%. In addition, a biomarker panel (C_16:1 and C_18:1) was also confirmed preliminarily to monitor disease progression in NSCLC patients treated with icotinib, with a lead time between 8 and 48 weeks relative to clinical medical imaging.

Conclusion: A combination of C_16:1, C_18:1, C_18:3, C_18:2, C_20:4, and C_22:6 may be a powerful biomarker panel for the early detection of NSCLC and a combination of C_16:1 and C_18:1for disease progression monitoring of NSCLC.

Quantitative analysis of exhaled carbonyl compounds distinguishes benign from malignant pulmonary disease

OBJECTIVES

The analysis of exhaled breath is a promising noninvasive tool for the diagnosis of lung cancer, but its clinical relevance has yet to be established. We report the analysis of exhaled volatile carbonyl compounds for the identification of specific carbonyl cancer markers to differentiate benign pulmonary disease from early-stage lung cancer and to compare its diagnostic accuracy with positron emission tomography (PET) scans.

METHODS

Aminooxy-coated silicon microchips were used for the selective capture of exhaled carbonyls by an oximation reaction. Breath samples were collected then directed through the silicon chips by applying a vacuum. Carbonyl adducts were analyzed by Fourier transform mass spectrometry. Eighty-eight control subjects, 107 patients with lung cancer (64 stage 0, I, or II), 40 patients with benign pulmonary disease, and 7 patients with a solitary pulmonary metastasis participated. Analysis of cancer markers was performed blinded to the pathologic results.

RESULTS

Four carbonyls were defined as cancer markers with significantly higher concentrations in patients with lung cancer. The number of increased cancer markers distinguished benign disease from both early and stage III and IV lung cancer. For early-stage disease, defining greater than 2 increased markers as diagnostic of lung cancer resulted in 83% sensitivity and 74% specificity. PET scans for this same cohort resulted in 90% sensitivity but only 39% specificity. Markers normalized for 3 of the 4 markers after resection of the lung cancer.

CONCLUSIONS

Analysis of specific exhaled carbonyls can differentiate early lung cancer from benign pulmonary disease. Breath analysis was more specific than PET for a lung cancer diagnosis. Judicious use of these data may expedite the care of patients with lung cancer.

Current status of circulating protein biomarkers to aid the early detection of lung cancer

ABSTRACT: 

Considerable efforts have been undertaken to produce an effective screening method to reduce lung cancer mortality. Imaging tools such as low-dose computed tomography has shown an increase in the detection of early disease and a reduction in the rate of death. This screening modality has, however, several limitations, such as overdiagnosis and a high rate of false positives. Therefore, new screening methods, such as the use of circulating protein biomarkers, have emerged as an option that could complement imaging studies. In this review, current imaging techniques applied to lung cancer screening protocols are presented, as well as up-to-date status of circulating protein biomarker panels that may improve lung cancer diagnosis. Additionally, diverse statistical and artificial intelligence tools applied to the design and optimization of these panels are discussed along with the presentation of two commercially available blood tests recently developed to help detect lung cancer early.

Effects of two genes coding squamous cell carcinoma antigen on the diagnosis and treatment of cervical squamous cell carcinoma

Objective: To study the effects of expressions of SCCA1 and SCCA2 in cervical squamous cell carcinoma on its diagnosis, treatment evaluation and prognosis analysis.

Methods: Seventy-six cervical squamous cell carcinoma patients enrolled in our hospital from October 2011 to April 2013 were selected, and another 76 healthy females (without cervical tissue lesions) were enrolled as the control. SCCA1 and SCCA2 expressions in the two groups were compared by RT-PCR. The serodiagnosis results before and after chemotherapy were compared to clarify the effects of SCCA2 expression.

Results: The two groups had similar relative SCCA1 expression rates that were not significantly correlated with pathological factors. Before chemotherapy, the relative expression rates of SCCA2 were significantly higher in the patients with later stage (t=6.018, P=0.00082<0.05) and lymphatic metastasis (t=6.281, P=0.00192<0.05). After treatment, relative SCCA2 expression rate was decreased more significantly in the effective group than that in the ineffective group (t=10.27893, P=0.02815<0.05).

Conclusion: The expression of SCCA1 failed to indicate the onset, diagnosis and prevention of cervical squamous cell carcinoma, whereas that of SCCA2 worked as one of the tumor markers.

MiR-15a-16 represses Cripto and inhibits NSCLC cell progression

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small noncoding RNAs that have important roles in cancer. The altered expressions of miRNAs and their target genes are frequently detected in various tumors. In this study, downregulation of miR-15a-16 in nonsmall cell lung cancer (NSCLC) was found to be inversely correlated with Cripto. Results from the Luciferase reporter assay and Western blot analysis also confirmed that Cripto is a direct target of miR-15a-16. In addition, transfection of miR-15a-16 expression plasmid inhibited the invasion ability and promoted the apoptosis of NCI-H23 and NCI-H358 cells. Moreover, miR-15a-16 overexpression suppressed tumor growth in vivo. These findings clearly suggest that the downregulation of miR-15a-16 with Cripto amplification may be involved in the development of NSCLC.

Autoantibody profiling for lung cancer screening longitudinal retrospective analysis of CT screening cohorts

Recommendations for lung cancer screening present a tangible opportunity to integrate predictive blood-based assays with radiographic imaging. This study compares performance of autoantibody markers from prior discovery in sample cohorts from two CT screening trials. One-hundred eighty non-cancer and 6 prevalence and 44 incidence cancer cases detected in the Mayo Lung Screening Trial were tested using a panel of six autoantibody markers to define a normal range and assign cutoff values for class prediction. A cutoff for minimal specificity and best achievable sensitivity were applied to 256 samples drawn annually for three years from 95 participants in the Kentucky Lung Screening Trial. Data revealed a discrepancy in quantile distribution between the two apparently comparable sample sets, which skewed the assay’s dynamic range towards specificity. This cutoff offered 43% specificity (102/237) in the control group and accurately classified 11/19 lung cancer samples (58%), which included 4/5 cancers at time of radiographic detection (80%), and 50% of occult cancers up to five years prior to diagnosis. An apparent ceiling in assay sensitivity is likely to limit the utility of this assay in a conventional screening paradigm. Pre-analytical bias introduced by sample age, handling or storage remains a practical concern during development, validation and implementation of autoantibody assays. This report does not draw conclusions about other logical applications for autoantibody profiling in lung cancer diagnosis and management, nor its potential when combined with other biomarkers that might improve overall predictive accuracy.

Noninvasive detection of lung cancer using exhaled breath

Early detection of lung cancer is a key factor for increasing the survival rates of lung cancer patients. The analysis of exhaled breath is promising as a noninvasive diagnostic tool for diagnosis of lung cancer. We demonstrate the quantitative analysis of carbonyl volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and identification of lung cancer VOC markers in exhaled breath using unique silicon microreactor technology. The microreactor consists of thousands of micropillars coated with an ammonium aminooxy salt for capture of carbonyl VOCs in exhaled breath by means of oximation reactions. Captured aminooxy-VOC adducts are analyzed by nanoelectrospray Fourier transform-ion cyclotron resonance (FT-ICR) mass spectrometry (MS). The concentrations of 2-butanone, 2-hydroxyacetaldehyde, 3-hydroxy-2-butanone, and 4-hydroxyhexenal (4-HHE) in the exhaled breath of lung cancer patients (n = 97) were significantly higher than in the exhaled breath of healthy smoker and nonsmoker controls (n = 88) and patients with benign pulmonary nodules (n = 32). The concentration of 2-butanone in exhaled breath of patients (n = 51) with stages II though IV non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) was significantly higher than in exhaled breath of patients with stage I (n = 34). The carbonyl VOC profile in exhaled breath determined using this new silicon microreactor technology provides for the noninvasive detection of lung cancer.

Effect of DNA methylation inhibitor on RASSF1A genes expression in non-small cell lung cancer cell line A549 and A549DDP

Background

Ras association domain family 1A gene (RASSFlA) is a candidate suppressor gene, Lack of RASSF1A expression was found in lung cancer. High DNA methylation at the promoter region is the main reason for inactivating RASSF1A transcription.

Methods

In this study, we examined RASSF1A’s methylation status and its mRNA expression level between non-small cell lung cancer cell line A549 and anti-Cisplatin cell strain A549DDP, Furthermore, methylation of A549DDP was reversed by treatment of 5-Aza-2′ - deoxycytidine (5-Aza-cdR),a DNA methyltransferase inhibitor.

Results

We found that RASSF1A’s methylation status and its mRNA expression were obvious differences between A549 and A549DDP. 5-Aza-CdR treatment remarkablly reduced cell vability of A549DDP. Moreover, 5-Aza-CdR treatment induced A549DDP cell apoptosis in a dose dependent manner with declining cell percentage in S and G2/M stage, and increasing proportion in G0/G1 stage. Cell motility was blocked in G0/G1 stage. All of A549DDP cells showed unmethylated expression, its high methylation status was reversed in a dose-dependent manner within a certain range.

Conclusions

The abnormal gene methylation status of RASSF1A is a molecular biomarker in lung cancer diagnosis, treatment and prognosis.

Diagnostic work-up and surgery in participants of the Gdansk lung cancer screening programme: the incidence of surgery for non-malignant conditions

OBJECTIVES

Low-dose computed tomography (LDCT) screening improves lung cancer prognosis but also results in diagnostic work-up and surgical treatment in many individuals without cancer. Therefore, we analysed the procedures that screening participants underwent to better understand the extent of overdiagnosis.

METHODS

Between 2009 and 2011, 8649 healthy volunteers aged 50-75 years with a 20 pack-year smoking history underwent LDCT screening, of whom individuals with detected lung nodules had 2 years control. Participants with a nodule >10 mm in diameter or with suspected tumour morphology underwent diagnostic work-up: 283 (6%)/4694 (54%) screened participants had detected lung nodules. One hundred and four individuals underwent surgery, 27 underwent oncological treatment and 152 without a cancer diagnosis underwent further follow-up with LDCT.

RESULTS

In 75% of participants accepted for diagnostic work-up and 25% of surgical patients, the procedures were unnecessary. In 70 (24.7%) participants, a specific diagnosis was obtained mainly due to the low efficacy of fine needle aspiration biopsy [sensitivity, 65.2%; negative predictive value (NPV), 95.9%] and bronchofiberoscopy (sensitivity, 71.4%; NPV, 50%) caused by overinterpretation of LDCT [positive predictive value (PPV), 2%]. Of 104 (36.7%) surgical patients, 43 (41.4%) had a preoperative cancer diagnosis, and 61 (58.6%) underwent surgery without pathological examination. In the latter group, intervention was justified in 35 (57.3%) patients. Complications occurred in 49 (17.3%) participants subjected to diagnostic work-up. In surgical patients, 67 (64.4%) malignant and 37 (35.6%) benign lesions were resected. In the latter group, intervention was justified in only 11 (29.7%) patients. No patient died because of diagnostic or treatment procedures during the study. The complication rate was 14.5% in the malignant and 10.8% in the benign groups. A neoplasm was found in 94 screening participants, of whom 67 (71.3%) underwent surgery; the remaining 27 (28.7%) patients were not surgical candidates. Adenocarcinoma accounted for 49/67 (73%) patients who underwent surgery for non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC); 56/67 (84%) patients had stage I NSCLC, and 26/67 (38%) underwent video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery lobectomy.

CONCLUSIONS

Futile diagnostic work-ups and operations must be reduced before LDCT screening can be broadly used. Stage I adenocarcinoma dominated in the NSCLC patients who underwent surgery.

Prospects for population screening and diagnosis of lung cancer

Deaths from lung cancer exceed those from any other type of malignancy, with 1·5 million deaths in 2010. Prevention and smoking cessation are still the main methods to reduce the death toll. The US National Lung Screening Trial, which compared CT screening with chest radiograph, yielded a mortality advantage of 20% to participants in the CT group. International debate is ongoing about whether sufficient evidence exists to implement CT screening programmes. When questions about effectiveness and cost-effectiveness have been answered, which will await publication of the largest European trial, NELSON, and pooled analysis of European CT screening trials, we discuss the main topics that will need consideration. These unresolved issues are risk prediction models to identify patients for CT screening; radiological protocols that use volumetric analysis for indeterminate nodules; options for surgical resection of CT-identified nodules; screening interval; and duration of screening. We suggest that a demonstration project of biennial screening over a 4-year period should be undertaken.

The value of surface enhanced laser desorption/ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry at the diagnosis of non-small cell lung cancer: a systematic review

Numbers of studies used surface enhanced laser desorption/ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry (SELDI-TOF-MS) to find novel serum biomarkers for non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). It is arguable whether the SELDI technique has its value of diagnostic accuracy for NSCLC. The purpose of our study is to determine the diagnostic accuracy of SELDI-TOF-MS for diagnosing NSCLC. The Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, MEDLINE, Pub Med, EMBASE, the Chinese Biomedical Literature Database, the China Academic Journals Full-text Database, and the Chinese Scientific Journals Database were searched systematically for potential studies. Reference lists of included studies and review articles were also reviewed. All studies that reported data on patients with a confirmed diagnosis of NSCLC and that compared the measurement of SELDI-TOF-MS with pathology standard were considered for inclusion. 11 studies were included in the systematic review. The ranges of the diagnostic value of SELDI-TOF-MS for NSCLC were as follows: sensitivity (SEN) was 0.70~1.00; specificity (SPE) was 0.68~1.00; positive likelihood ratio (PLR) was 2.23~23.14; negative likelihood ratio (NLR) was 0.04~0.43; and diagnostic odds ratio (DOR) was 5.17~621.0, respectively. SELDI-TOF-MS showed high accuracy in identifying NSCLC, and could be a potential screening tool for diagnosing NSCLC patients.

Principal component analysis based feature extraction approach to identify circulating microRNA biomarkers

The discovery and characterization of blood-based disease biomarkers are clinically important because blood collection is easy and involves relatively little stress for the patient. However, blood generally reflects not only targeted diseases, but also the whole body status of patients. Thus, the selection of biomarkers may be difficult. In this study, we considered miRNAs as biomarker candidates for several reasons. First, since miRNAs were discovered relatively recently, they have not yet been tested extensively. Second, since the number of miRNAs is relatively limited, selection is expected to be easy. Third, since they are known to play critical roles in a wide range of biological processes, their expression may be disease specific. We applied a newly proposed method to select combinations of miRNAs that discriminate between healthy controls and each of 14 diseases that include 5 cancers. A new feature selection method is based on principal component analysis. Namely this method does not require knowledge of whether each sample was derived from a disease patient or a healthy control. Using this method, we found that hsa-miR-425, hsa-miR-15b, hsa-miR-185, hsa-miR-92a, hsa-miR-140-3p, hsa-miR-320a, hsa-miR-486-5p, hsa-miR-16, hsa-miR-191, hsa-miR-106b, hsa-miR-19b, and hsa-miR-30d were potential biomarkers; combinations of 10 of these miRNAs allowed us to discriminate each disease included in this study from healthy controls. These 12 miRNAs are significantly up- or downregulated in most cancers and other diseases, albeit in a cancer- or disease-specific combinatory manner. Therefore, these 12 miRNAs were also previously reported to be cancer- and disease-related miRNAs. Many disease-specific KEGG pathways were also significantly enriched by target genes of up−/downregulated miRNAs within several combinations of 10 miRNAs among these 12 miRNAs. We also selected miRNAs that could discriminate one disease from another or from healthy controls. These miRNAs were found to be largely overlapped with miRNAs that discriminate each disease from healthy controls.

DNA methylation biomarkers offer improved diagnostic efficiency in lung cancer

The exceptional high mortality of lung cancer can be instigated to a high degree by late diagnosis. Despite the plethora of studies on potential molecular biomarkers for lung cancer diagnosis, very few have reached clinical implementation. In this study, we developed a panel of DNA methylation biomarkers and validated their diagnostic efficiency in bronchial washings from a large retrospective cohort. Candidate targets from previous high-throughput approaches were examined by pyrosequencing in an independent set of 48 lung tumor/normal paired. Ten promoters were selected and quantitative methylation-specific PCR (qMSP) assays were developed and used to screen 655 bronchial washings from the Liverpool Lung Project (LLP) subjects divided into training (194 cases and 214 controls) and validation (139 cases and 109 controls) sets. Three statistical models were used to select the optimal panel of markers and to evaluate the performance of the discriminatory algorithms. The final logit regression model incorporated hypermethylation at p16, TERT, WT1, and RASSF1. The performance of this 4-gene methylation signature in the validation set showed 82% sensitivity and 91% specificity. In comparison, cytology alone in this set provided 43% sensitivity at 100% specificity. The diagnostic efficiency of the panel did not show any biases with age, gender, smoking, and the presence of a nonlung neoplasm. However, sensitivity was predictably higher in central (squamous and small cell) than peripheral (adenocarcinomas) tumors, as well as in stage 2 or greater tumors. These findings clearly show the impact of DNA methylation-based assays in the diagnosis of cytologically occult lung neoplasms. A prospective trial is currently imminent in the LLP study to provide data on the enhancement of diagnostic accuracy in a clinical setting, including by additional markers.

Discrimination of clinical stages in non-small cell lung cancer patients by serum HSP27 and HSP70: a multi-institutional case-control study

INTRODUCTION

Lung cancer represents a major healthcare problem. Accordingly, there is an urgent need to identify serum biomarkers for early diagnosis of lung pathology. We have recently described that patients with manifest COPD evidence elevated levels of heat shock proteins (HSPs). Based on these data, we speculated whether HSPs are also increased in patients with diagnosed lung cancer.

METHODS

Serum levels of HSP27, phospho-HSP27 (pHSP27) and HSP70 in patients with non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) diagnosed at an early (stages I-II, n=37) or advanced (stages IIIA-IV, n=72) stage were determined by using ELISA. Healthy smokers (n=24), healthy never-smoker volunteers (n=33) and COPD patients (n=34) according to GOLD classification served as control population.

RESULTS

Serum levels of HSP27 were elevated in patients with NSCLC diagnosed at an early or advanced stage when compared with both healthy control groups (P<0.005 and P<0.0001 respectively). Statistically significant differences were furthermore found between the groups of patients with early vs. advanced stage NSCLC (P=0.0021). Serum levels of HSP70 were also significantly elevated in patients with NSCLC diagnosed at an early or at an advanced stage when compared with either healthy control groups (P=0.0028 and P<0.0001 respectively). In univariate logistic regression models including healthy subjects and patients with NSCLC, HSP70 had an area under the curve (AUC) of 0.779 (P<0.0001) and HSP27 showed an AUC of 0.870 (P<0.0001).

CONCLUSION

Our data suggest that serum HSP27 levels might serve as a possible tool to discriminate between early and advanced stages NSCLC.

Applications of MicroRNAs in the Diagnosis and Prognosis of Lung Cancer

INTRODUCTION: Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer death worldwide, due to its late diagnosis and poor outcome. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small non-coding RNAs that regulate gene expression at the posttranscriptional levels by either degrading or blocking translation of messenger RNA targets. Accumulating evidence indicates that miRNAs play a pivotal role in the development and progression of human malignancies, including lung cancer. AREAS COVERED: In this review, the authors focus on 1) application of miRNA-based biomarkers to help classify lung cancer, 2) application of the miRNA biomarkers for the early detection of lung cancer, and 3) use of miRNAs as biomarkers to predict outcomes of lung cancer. EXPERT OPINION: MiRNAs provide promising biomarkers for the diagnosis and prognosis of lung cancer. The developed miRNA biomarkers should be comprehensively and prospectively validated in clinical trials before being used in laboratory settings.

High-definition imaging of circulating tumor cells and associated cellular events in non-small cell lung cancer patients: a longitudinal analysis

Sampling circulating tumor cells (CTCs) from peripheral blood is ideally accomplished using assays that detect high numbers of cells and preserve them for downstream characterization. We sought to evaluate a method using enrichment free fluorescent labeling of CTCs followed by automated digital microscopy in patients with non-small cell lung cancer. Twenty-eight patients with non-small cell lung cancer and hematogenously seeded metastasis were analyzed with multiple blood draws. We detected CTCs in 68% of analyzed samples and found a propensity for increased CTC detection as the disease progressed in individual patients. CTCs were present at a median concentration of 1.6 CTCs ml⁻¹ of analyzed blood in the patient population. Higher numbers of detected CTCs were associated with an unfavorable prognosis.

IGDB.NSCLC: integrated genomic database of non-small cell lung cancer

Lung cancer is the most common cause of cancer-related mortality with more than 1.4 million deaths per year worldwide. To search for significant somatic alterations in lung cancer, we analyzed, integrated and manually curated various data sets and literatures to present an integrated genomic database of non-small cell lung cancer (IGDB.NSCLC, http://igdb.nsclc.ibms.sinica.edu.tw). We collected data sets derived from hundreds of human NSCLC (lung adenocarcinomas and/or squamous cell carcinomas) to illustrate genomic alterations [chromosomal regions with copy number alterations (CNAs), gain/loss and loss of heterozygosity], aberrant expressed genes and microRNAs, somatic mutations and experimental evidence and clinical information of alterations retrieved from literatures. IGDB.NSCLC provides user friendly interfaces and searching functions to display multiple layers of evidence especially emphasizing on concordant alterations of CNAs with co-localized altered gene expression, aberrant microRNAs expression, somatic mutations or genes with associated clinicopathological features. These significant concordant alterations in NSCLC are graphically or tabularly presented to facilitate and prioritize as the putative cancer targets for pathological and mechanistic studies of lung tumorigenesis and for developing new strategies in clinical interventions.

Lung cancer signatures in plasma based on proteome profiling of mouse tumor models

We investigated the potential of in-depth quantitative proteomics to reveal plasma protein signatures that reflect lung tumor biology. We compared plasma protein profiles of four mouse models of lung cancer with profiles of models of pancreatic, ovarian, colon, prostate, and breast cancer and two models of inflammation. A protein signature for Titf1/Nkx2-1, a known lineage-survival oncogene in lung cancer, was found in plasmas of mouse models of lung adenocarcinoma. An EGFR signature was found in plasma of an EGFR mutant model, and a distinct plasma signature related to neuroendocrine development was uncovered in the small-cell lung cancer model. We demonstrate relevance to human lung cancer of the protein signatures identified on the basis of mouse models.