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Egbert AR, Karpiak S, Havlik R, Cankurtaran S. Global occurrence of depressive symptoms during the COVID-19 pandemic. J Psychosom Res 2023; 166:111145. [PMID: 36736190 PMCID: PMC9838027 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpsychores.2022.111145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2021] [Revised: 12/30/2022] [Accepted: 12/31/2022] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE This study aimed to estimate the occurrence of depressive symptoms in a global population of young, middle-aged and older adults amid the COVID-19 pandemic. Study data also assessed the impact of the social restrictions caused by the pandemic on depressive symptomatology. METHODS A self-administered internet-based survey was completed by 111,225 individuals residing in 176 countries (March-April 2020). We retained: demographic data, depressive symptoms (PHQ8), anxieties specific to the COVID-19, personality traits (Big-Five Personality Questionnaire), comorbidity frequency, health quality, behavioral variables (i,e., staying at home, avoiding social gatherings, social distancing in the past week). Occurrence of depressive symptoms was estimated using standard cut-offs (total PHQ8 score ≥ 10). Hierarchical regression modeling examined correlates of depressive symptoms (PHQ8 score) in three groups stratified by age, i.e., 18-34, 35-54 and 55+ years. RESULTS Moderate to severe depressive symptoms were present in 27% of young, 15% middle-aged and 9% older adults. Younger age, female gender, not partnered, higher anxiety, and poorer health were associated with elevated depressive symptoms. Staying at home/not attending social gatherings were minor contributors to depressive symptoms in young and middle-aged adults. These were not significant in older adults. Social distancing was a marginal contributor in middle-aged and near significant in older adults, but not significant in young adults. CONCLUSIONS The occurrence of depressive symptoms is decreasing with advancing age. Increased risk of depressive symptoms was associated with being a younger adult, females, single/divorced, poorer health and higher anxiety. In all age groups, the presence of depressive symptoms was greater than global estimates preceding the COVID-19 pandemic. Social restrictions amid the COVID-19 pandemic were marginal risks for depressive symptoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Rita Egbert
- Department of Psychology, St. Joseph's University, New York, USA.
| | | | - Richard Havlik
- National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, USA
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Abstract
There is increasingly compelling evidence that microorganisms may play an etiological role in the emergence of mental illness in a subset of the population. Historically, most work has focused on the neurotrophic herpesviruses, herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1), cytomegalovirus (CMV), and Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) as well as the protozoan, Toxoplasma gondii. In this chapter, we provide an umbrella review of this literature and additionally highlight prospective studies that allow more mechanistic conclusions to be drawn. Next, we focus on clinical trials of anti-microbial medications for the treatment of psychiatric disorders. We critically evaluate six trials that tested the impact of anti-herpes medications on inflammatory outcomes in the context of a medical disorder, nine clinical trials utilizing anti-herpetic medications for the treatment of myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS) or schizophrenia, and four clinical trials utilizing anti-parasitic medications for the treatment of schizophrenia. We then turn our attention to evidence for a gut dysbiosis and altered microbiome in psychiatric disorders, and the potential therapeutic effects of probiotics, including an analysis of more than 10 randomized controlled trials of probiotics in the context of schizophrenia, bipolar disorder (BD), and major depressive disorder (MDD).
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Silva S, Ayoub HH, Johnston C, Atun R, Abu-Raddad LJ. Estimated economic burden of genital herpes and HIV attributable to herpes simplex virus type 2 infections in 90 low- and middle-income countries: A modeling study. PLoS Med 2022; 19:e1003938. [PMID: 36520853 PMCID: PMC9754187 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1003938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2022] [Accepted: 11/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Economic losses due to herpes simplex infections in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) are unknown. We estimated economic and quality-of-life losses due to genital herpes in 2019, in 90 LMICs, and from 2020 to 2030 in 45 countries in the World Health Organization (WHO) Africa. We additionally estimated economic losses due to human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) attributable to herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) infections. METHODS AND FINDINGS We estimated genital herpes-related spending on treatment, wage losses due to absenteeism, and reductions in quality of life, for individuals aged 15 to 49 years, living with genital herpes. Had HSV-2 had contributed to the transmission of HIV, we estimated the share of antiretroviral treatment costs and HIV-related wage losses in 2019 that can be attributed to incident and prevalent HSV-2 infections in 2018. For the former, we used estimates of HSV-2 incidence and prevalence from the global burden of disease (GBD) study. For the latter, we calculated population attributable fractions (PAFs), using the classic (Levin's) epidemiological formula for polytomous exposures, with relative risks (RRs) reported in literature. To extend estimates from 2020 to 2030, we modeled the transmission of HSV-2 in 45 African countries using a deterministic compartmental mathematical model, structured by age, sex, and sexual activity, which was fitted to seroprevalence gathered from a systematic review and meta-regression analysis. In the 90 LMICs, genital herpes contributed to US$813.5 million in treatment and productivity losses in 2019 (range: US$674.4 to US$952.2 million). Given observed care-seeking and absenteeism, losses are in the range of US$29.0 billion (US$25.6 billion to US$34.5 billion). Quality-of-life losses in the amount of 61.7 million quality-adjusted life years (QALYs) are also possible (50.4 million to 74.2 million). The mean annual cost of treatment and wage losses per infection is US$183.00 (95% CI: US$153.60 to US$212.55); the mean annual cost of quality-of-life losses is US$343.27 (95% CI: 272.41 to 414.14). If HSV-2 has fueled the transmission of HIV, then seroprevalent HSV-2 cases in 2018 can account for 33.2% of the incident HIV infections in 2019, with an associated antiretroviral therapy (ART) cost of US$186.3 million (range: US$163.6 to US$209.5 million) and 28.6% of HIV-related wage losses (US$21.9 million; range: US$19.2 to US$27.4 million). In the WHO Africa region, the 3.9 million seroprevalent genital herpes cases from 2020 to 2030 contributed to US$700.2 million in treatment and productivity losses. Additionally, quality-of-life losses in the range of 88 million to 871 million QALYs are also possible. If HSV-2 has contributed to the transmission of HIV, then in 2020, the PAF of HIV due to prevalent HSV-2 will be 32.8% (95% CI: 26.7% to 29.9%) and due to incident infections will be 4.2% (95% CI: 2.6% to 3.4%). The PAF due to prevalent infections will decline to 31.0% by 2030 and incident infections to 3.6%. Though we have accounted for the uncertainty in the epidemiological and economic parameter values via the sensitivity analysis, our estimates still undervalue losses due to limiting to the 15- to 49-year-old population. CONCLUSIONS Economic losses due to genital herpes in LMICs can be large, especially when considering the lifelong nature of the disease. Quality-of-life losses outweigh spending on treatment and reductions in productivity. If HSV-2 has contributed to the spread of HIV in LMICs, then nearly one third of antiretroviral costs and HIV-related wage losses can be attributed to HSV-2. Given the magnitude of the combined losses, a vaccine against HSV-2 must be a global priority.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sachin Silva
- Harvard TH Chan School of Public Health, Harvard University Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- University of California, San Francisco, Institute for Global Health Sciences, San Francisco, California, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Houssein H. Ayoub
- Mathematics Program, Department of Mathematics, Statistics, and Physics, College of Arts and Sciences, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar
| | - Christine Johnston
- Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- Vaccine and Infectious Diseases Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Rifat Atun
- Harvard TH Chan School of Public Health, Harvard University Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Laith J. Abu-Raddad
- Infectious Diseases Epidemiology Group, Weill Cornell Medicine–Qatar, Doha, Qatar
- World Health Organization Collaborating Centre for Disease Epidemiology Analytics on HIV/AIDS, Sexually Transmitted Infections, and Viral Hepatitis, Weill Cornell Medicine–Qatar, Doha, Qatar
- Department of Population Health Sciences, Weill Cornell Medicine, Cornell University, New York, New York, United States of America
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Hayward SE, Dowd JB, Fletcher H, Nellums LB, Wurie F, Boccia D. A systematic review of the impact of psychosocial factors on immunity: Implications for enhancing BCG response against tuberculosis. SSM Popul Health 2020; 10:100522. [PMID: 31909166 PMCID: PMC6939020 DOI: 10.1016/j.ssmph.2019.100522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2019] [Revised: 11/25/2019] [Accepted: 11/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Tuberculosis (TB) remains an urgent global public health priority, causing 1.5 million deaths worldwide in 2018. There is evidence that psychosocial factors modulate immune function; however, how this may influence TB risk or BCG vaccine response, and whether this pathway can be modified through social protection, has not been investigated. This paper aims to: a) systematically review evidence of how psychosocial factors influence the expression of biomarkers of immunity, and b) apply this general evidence to propose plausible TB-specific pathways for future study. METHODS Papers reporting on the impact of psychosocial stressors on immune biomarkers in relation to infectious disease risk were identified through a search of the databases MEDLINE, PsycINFO, Global Health and PsycEXTRA alongside reference list and citation searching of key papers. Data extraction and critical appraisal were carried out using a standardised form. The findings were tabulated and synthesised narratively by infectious disease category, and used to propose plausible mechanisms for how psychosocial exposures might influence immune outcomes relevant to TB and BCG response. RESULTS 27,026 citations were identified, of which 51 met the inclusion criteria. The literature provides evidence of a relationship between psychosocial factors and immune biomarkers. While the direction and strength of associations is heterogenous, some overarching patterns emerged: adverse psychosocial factors (e.g. stress) were generally associated with compromised vaccine response and higher antibody titres to herpesviruses, and vice versa for positive psychosocial factors (e.g. social support). CONCLUSIONS The evidence identifies pathways linking psychosocial factors and immune response: co-viral infection and immune suppression, both of which are potentially relevant to TB and BCG response. However, the heterogeneity in the strength and nature of the impact of psychosocial factors on immune function, and lack of research on the implications of this relationship for TB, underscore the need for TB-specific research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sally E. Hayward
- Faculty of Public Health and Policy, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, WC1E 7HT, UK
- Institute of Infection & Immunity, St George's, University of London, Cranmer Terrace, London, SW17 0RE, UK
| | - Jennifer B. Dowd
- Leverhulme Centre for Demographic Science, University of Oxford, 42-43 Park End Street, Oxford, OX1 1JD, UK
| | - Helen Fletcher
- Department of Immunology and Infection, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, WC1E 7HT, UK
| | - Laura B. Nellums
- Institute of Infection & Immunity, St George's, University of London, Cranmer Terrace, London, SW17 0RE, UK
- Division of Epidemiology and Public Health, School of Medicine, University of Nottingham, Hucknall Road, Nottingham, NG5 1PB, UK
| | - Fatima Wurie
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Institute of Epidemiology and Health Care, University College London, 1-19 Torrington Place, London, WC1E 7HB, UK
| | - Delia Boccia
- Faculty of Public Health and Policy, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, WC1E 7HT, UK
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James C, Harfouche M, Welton NJ, Turner KM, Abu-Raddad LJ, Gottlieb SL, Looker KJ. Herpes simplex virus: global infection prevalence and incidence estimates, 2016. Bull World Health Organ 2020; 98:315-329. [PMID: 32514197 PMCID: PMC7265941 DOI: 10.2471/blt.19.237149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 310] [Impact Index Per Article: 77.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2019] [Revised: 01/21/2020] [Accepted: 01/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective To generate global and regional estimates for the prevalence and incidence of herpes simplex virus (HSV) type 1 and type 2 infection for 2016. Methods To obtain data, we undertook a systematic review to identify studies up to August 2018. Adjustments were made to account for HSV test sensitivity and specificity. For each World Health Organization (WHO) region, we applied a constant incidence model to pooled prevalence by age and sex to estimate the prevalence and incidence of HSV types 1 and 2 infections. For HSV type 1, we apportioned infection by anatomical site using pooled estimates of the proportions that were oral and genital. Findings In 2016, an estimated 491.5 million people (95% uncertainty interval, UI: 430.4 million–610.6 million) were living with HSV type 2 infection, equivalent to 13.2% of the world’s population aged 15–49 years. An estimated 3752.0 million people (95% UI: 3555.5 million–3854.6 million) had HSV type 1 infection at any site, equivalent to a global prevalence of 66.6% in 0–49-year-olds. Differing patterns were observed by age, sex and geographical region, with HSV type 2 prevalence being highest among women and in the WHO African Region. Conclusion An estimated half a billion people had genital infection with HSV type 2 or type 1, and several billion had oral HSV type 1 infection. Millions of people may also be at higher risk of acquiring human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), particularly women in the WHO African Region who have the highest HSV type 2 prevalence and exposure to HIV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charlotte James
- Population Health Sciences, Bristol Medical School, University of Bristol, Bristol, Oakfield House, Oakfield Grove, Bristol BS8 2BN, England
| | | | - Nicky J Welton
- Population Health Sciences, Bristol Medical School, University of Bristol, Bristol, Oakfield House, Oakfield Grove, Bristol BS8 2BN, England
| | | | | | - Sami L Gottlieb
- Department of Reproductive Health and Research, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Katharine J Looker
- Population Health Sciences, Bristol Medical School, University of Bristol, Bristol, Oakfield House, Oakfield Grove, Bristol BS8 2BN, England
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Gale SD, Berrett AN, Erickson LD, Brown BL, Hedges DW. Association between virus exposure and depression in US adults. Psychiatry Res 2018; 261:73-79. [PMID: 29287239 DOI: 10.1016/j.psychres.2017.12.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2017] [Revised: 11/03/2017] [Accepted: 12/14/2017] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Mood disorders are common mental illnesses. Among the factors associated with major depression are exposures to infectious diseases including hepatitis C, influenza, varicella-zoster, and herpes viruses. In this study, we sought to evaluate further associations between viral exposure and depression. From the US Center for Disease Control's National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, we obtained data about depression status, antidepressant use, exposure to hepatitis A, hepatitis B, herpes simplex virus type 1, herpes simplex virus type 2, human immunodeficiency virus, and cytomegalovirus, and sociodemographic variables and evaluated associations between depression and viral exposure in adjusted multivariable models. Herpes simplex virus type 2 was associated with an increased risk of depression, whereas hepatitis A, hepatitis B, and herpes simplex virus type 1 were not. Higher cytomegalovirus antibody levels were associated with depression in subjects seropositive for cytomegalovirus. In conclusion, exposure to herpes simplex virus type 2 and possibly cytomegalovirus are associated with depression in an adult US sample.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shawn D Gale
- Department of Psychology, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, United States; The Neuroscience Center, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, United States.
| | - Andrew N Berrett
- Department of Psychology, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, United States
| | - Lance D Erickson
- Department of Sociology, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, United States
| | - Bruce L Brown
- Department of Psychology, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, United States
| | - Dawson W Hedges
- Department of Psychology, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, United States; The Neuroscience Center, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, United States
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