1
|
Viral and Cellular factors leading to the Loss of CD4 Homeostasis in HIV-1 Viremic Nonprogressors. J Virol 2021; 96:e0149921. [PMID: 34668779 PMCID: PMC8754213 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01499-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) viremic nonprogressors (VNPs) represent a very rare HIV-1 extreme phenotype. VNPs are characterized by persistent high plasma viremia and maintenance of CD4+ T-cell counts in the absence of treatment. However, the causes of nonpathogenic HIV-1 infection in VNPs remain elusive. Here, we identified for the first time two VNPs who experienced the loss of CD4+ homeostasis (LoH) after more than 13 years. We characterized in deep detail viral and host factors associated with the LoH and compared with standard VNPs and healthy controls. The viral factors determined included HIV-1 coreceptor usage and replicative capacity. Changes in CD4+ and CD8+ T-cell activation, maturational phenotype, and expression of CCR5 and CXCR6 in CD4+ T-cells were also evaluated as host-related factors. Consistently, we determined a switch in HIV-1 coreceptor use to CXCR4 concomitant with an increase in replicative capacity at the LoH for the two VNPs. Moreover, we delineated an increase in the frequency of HLA-DR+CD38+ CD4+ and CD8+ T cells and traced the augment of naive T-cells upon polyclonal activation with LoH. Remarkably, very low and stable levels of CCR5 and CXCR6 expression in CD4+ T-cells were measured over time. Overall, our results demonstrated HIV-1 evolution toward highly pathogenic CXCR4 strains in the context of very limited and stable expression of CCR5 and CXCR6 in CD4+ T cells as potential drivers of LoH in VNPs. These data bring novel insights into the correlates of nonpathogenic HIV-1 infection. IMPORTANCE The mechanism behind nonpathogenic human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection remains poorly understood, mainly because of the very low frequency of viremic nonprogressors (VNPs). Here, we report two cases of VNPs who experienced the loss of CD4+ T-cell homeostasis (LoH) after more than 13 years of HIV-1 infection. The deep characterization of viral and host factors supports the contribution of viral and host factors to the LoH in VNPs. Thus, HIV-1 evolution toward highly replicative CXCR4 strains together with changes in T-cell activation and maturational phenotypes were found. Moreover, we measured very low and stable levels of CCR5 and CXCR6 in CD4+ T-cells over time. These findings support viral evolution toward X4 strains limited by coreceptor expression to control HIV-1 pathogenesis and demonstrate the potential of host-dependent factors, yet to be fully elucidated in VNPs, to control HIV-1 pathogenesis.
Collapse
|
2
|
Anokhina VS, McAnany JD, Ciesla JH, Hilimire TA, Santoso N, Miao H, Miller BL. Enhancing the ligand efficiency of anti-HIV compounds targeting frameshift-stimulating RNA. Bioorg Med Chem 2019; 27:2972-2977. [PMID: 31101492 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2019.05.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2019] [Revised: 04/22/2019] [Accepted: 05/07/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Ribosomal frameshifting, a process whereby a translating ribosome is diverted from one reading frame to another on a contiguous mRNA, is an important regulatory mechanism in biology and an opportunity for therapeutic intervention in several human diseases. In HIV, ribosomal frameshifting controls the ratio of Gag and Gag-Pol, two polyproteins critical to the HIV life cycle. We have previously reported compounds able to selectively bind an RNA stemloop within the Gag-Pol mRNA; these compounds alter the production of Gag-Pol in a manner consistent with increased frameshifting. Importantly, they also display antiretroviral activity in human T-cells. Here, we describe new compounds with significantly reduced molecular weight, but with substantially maintained affinity and anti-HIV activity. These results suggest that development of more "ligand efficient" enhancers of ribosomal frameshifting is an achievable goal.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Viktoriya S Anokhina
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14642, United States
| | - John D McAnany
- Department of Chemistry, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14642, United States
| | - Jessica H Ciesla
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14642, United States
| | - Thomas A Hilimire
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14642, United States
| | - Netty Santoso
- Department of Biostatistics, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14642, United States
| | - Hongyu Miao
- Department of Biostatistics and Data Science, School of Public Health, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX 77030, United States
| | - Benjamin L Miller
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14642, United States; Department of Dermatology, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14642, United States.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Hilimire TA, Chamberlain JM, Anokhina V, Bennett RP, Swart O, Myers JR, Ashton JM, Stewart RA, Featherston AL, Gates K, Helms ED, Smith HC, Dewhurst S, Miller BL. HIV-1 Frameshift RNA-Targeted Triazoles Inhibit Propagation of Replication-Competent and Multi-Drug-Resistant HIV in Human Cells. ACS Chem Biol 2017; 12:1674-1682. [PMID: 28448121 PMCID: PMC5477779 DOI: 10.1021/acschembio.7b00052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
![]()
The
HIV-1 frameshift-stimulating (FSS) RNA, a regulatory RNA of
critical importance in the virus’ life cycle, has been posited
as a novel target for anti-HIV drug development. We report the synthesis
and evaluation of triazole-containing compounds able to bind the FSS
with high affinity and selectivity. Readily accessible synthetically,
these compounds are less toxic than previously reported olefin congeners.
We show for the first time that FSS-targeting compounds have antiviral
activity against replication-competent HIV in human cells, including
a highly cytopathic, multidrug-resistant strain. These results support
the viability of the HIV-1 FSS RNA as a therapeutic target and more
generally highlight opportunities for synthetic molecule-mediated
interference with protein recoding in a wide range of organisms.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Eric D. Helms
- Department of Chemistry, SUNY Geneseo, Geneseo, New York 14454, United States
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
4
|
Atisha-Fregoso Y, Lima G, Pascual-Ramos V, Baños-Peláez M, Fragoso-Loyo H, Jakez-Ocampo J, Contreras-Yáñez I, Llorente L. Rheumatoid Arthritis Disease Activity Is Determinant for ABCB1 and ABCG2 Drug-Efflux Transporters Function. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0159556. [PMID: 27442114 PMCID: PMC4956301 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0159556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2016] [Accepted: 07/04/2016] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To compare drug efflux function of ABCB1 and ABCG2 transporters in rheumatoid arthritis (RA) patients with active disease and in remission. METHODS Twenty two active RA patients (DAS28 ≥3.2) and 22 patients in remission (DAS28<2.6) were selected from an early RA clinic. All patients were evaluated at study inclusion and six months later. ABCB1 and ABCG2 functional activity was measured in peripheral lymphocytes by flow cytometry. The percentage of cells able to extrude substrates for ABCB1 and ABCG2 was recorded. RESULTS Active patients had higher ABCB1 and ABCG2 activity compared with patients in remission (median [interquartile range]): 3.9% (1.4-22.2) vs (1.3% (0.6-3.2), p = 0.003 and 3.9% (1.1-13.3) vs 0.9% (0.5-1.9) p = 0.006 respectively. Both transporters correlated with disease activity assessed by DAS28, rho = 0.45, p = 0.002 and rho = 0.47, p = 0.001 respectively. Correlation was observed between the time from the beginning of treatment and transporter activity: rho = 0.34, p = 0.025 for ABCB1 and rho = 0.35, p = 0.018 for ABCG2. The linear regression model showed that DAS28 and the time from the onset of treatment are predictors of ABCB1 and ABCG2 functional activity, even after adjustment for treatment. After six months we calculated the correlation between change in DAS28 and change in the functional activity in both transporters and found a moderate and significant correlation for ABCG2 (rho = 0.28, p = 0.04) and a non-significant correlation for ABCB1 (rho = 0.22, p = 0.11). CONCLUSIONS Patients with active RA have an increased function of ABCB1 and ABCG2, and disease activity is the main determinant of this phenomena.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yemil Atisha-Fregoso
- Division of Medicine, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, México City, México
| | - Guadalupe Lima
- Department of Immunology and Rheumatology, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, México City, México
| | - Virginia Pascual-Ramos
- Department of Immunology and Rheumatology, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, México City, México
| | - Miguel Baños-Peláez
- Department of Immunology and Rheumatology, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, México City, México
| | - Hilda Fragoso-Loyo
- Department of Immunology and Rheumatology, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, México City, México
| | - Juan Jakez-Ocampo
- Department of Immunology and Rheumatology, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, México City, México
| | - Irazú Contreras-Yáñez
- Department of Immunology and Rheumatology, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, México City, México
| | - Luis Llorente
- Department of Immunology and Rheumatology, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, México City, México
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Law KM, Komarova NL, Yewdall AW, Lee RK, Herrera OL, Wodarz D, Chen BK. In Vivo HIV-1 Cell-to-Cell Transmission Promotes Multicopy Micro-compartmentalized Infection. Cell Rep 2016; 15:2771-83. [PMID: 27292632 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2016.05.059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2016] [Revised: 04/07/2016] [Accepted: 05/15/2016] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
HIV-1 infection is enhanced by adhesive structures that form between infected and uninfected T cells called virological synapses (VSs). This mode of transmission results in the frequent co-transmission of multiple copies of HIV-1 across the VS, which can reduce sensitivity to antiretroviral drugs. Studying HIV-1 infection of humanized mice, we measured the frequency of co-transmission and the spatiotemporal organization of infected cells as indicators of cell-to-cell transmission in vivo. When inoculating mice with cells co-infected with two viral genotypes, we observed high levels of co-transmission to target cells. Additionally, micro-anatomical clustering of viral genotypes within lymphoid tissue indicates that viral spread is driven by local processes and not a diffuse viral cloud. Intravital splenic imaging reveals that anchored HIV-infected cells induce arrest of interacting, uninfected CD4(+) T cells to form Env-dependent cell-cell conjugates. These findings suggest that HIV-1 spread between immune cells can be anatomically localized into infectious clusters.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth M Law
- Division of Infectious Disease, Department of Medicine, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA; Immunology Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Natalia L Komarova
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology and Department of Mathematics, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Alice W Yewdall
- Division of Infectious Disease, Department of Medicine, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA; Immunology Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Rebecca K Lee
- Division of Infectious Disease, Department of Medicine, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA; Immunology Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Olga L Herrera
- Division of Infectious Disease, Department of Medicine, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA; Immunology Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Dominik Wodarz
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology and Department of Mathematics, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Benjamin K Chen
- Division of Infectious Disease, Department of Medicine, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA; Immunology Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA; Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Viral envelope is a major determinant of enhanced fitness of a multidrug-resistant HIV-1 variant. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2015; 68:487-94. [PMID: 25622054 DOI: 10.1097/qai.0000000000000524] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Multidrug-resistant (MDR) HIV-1 viruses are thought to be less pathogenic than wild-type viruses because of the fitness costs of drug-resistance mutations. However, we identified an individual infected with MDR virus associated with rapid disease progression referred to as MDR-1. To study the contribution of virologic factors to rapid disease progression, we constructed molecular clones that demonstrated high replication fitness and cytopathicity. To dissect determinants of enhanced fitness of a cytopathic clone, pMDR-1c, we divided its genome into 2 parts: the envelope (gp160) and the remaining backbone genome, and constructed mutual chimeric viruses with a reference, wild-type virus clone, pNL4-3. The growth competition assay indicated that pMDR-1c has high fitness (1.62), although its envelope confers remarkably enhanced fitness (2.29) and its backbone confers reduced fitness (0.56) as compared with pNL4-3. We also performed a similar study with a less cytopathic pMDR-5a, a molecular clone derived from another subject MDR-5, infected with MDR HIV-1, and associated with slower clinical progression. The results indicated that pMDR-5a has reduced fitness (0.82), although its envelope confers enhanced fitness (1.64) and its backbone confers reduced fitness (0.49), a fitness pattern compatible with envelope-mediated fitness compensation. These results suggest that the viral envelope may be a major determinant of the enhanced fitness of the MDR HIV-1 variant isolated from a patient with rapid disease progression. Furthermore, we speculate that compensation conferred by envelope may be a mechanism by which MDR HIV-1 maintains overall fitness despite the presence of changes in pol, which reduce replication capacity.
Collapse
|
7
|
Markowitz M, Evering TH, Garmon D, Caskey M, La Mar M, Rodriguez K, Sahi V, Palmer S, Prada N, Mohri H. A randomized open-label study of 3- versus 5-drug combination antiretroviral therapy in newly HIV-1-infected individuals. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2014; 66:140-7. [PMID: 24457632 PMCID: PMC4123437 DOI: 10.1097/qai.0000000000000111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND To understand whether combination antiretroviral therapy (cART) has been optimized, we asked whether 3-drug protease inhibitor (PI)-based cART intensified with raltegravir and maraviroc and initiated during early infection would improve outcomes when compared with similarly applied 3-drug PI-based cART. METHODS Forty newly HIV-1-infected patients were randomized 1:2 to receive 3-drug (N = 14) or 5-drug (N = 26) therapy. The primary end point was the percent of subjects with undetectable plasma viremia using standard reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction and the single copy assay after 48 weeks. Secondary end points included levels of cell-associated HIV-1 DNA and RNA and levels of infectious virus in resting CD4 T cells at week 96 and quantitative and qualitative immunologic responses. RESULTS At 48 weeks, 34 subjects remained on study and are included in the as-treated analysis. Three of 11 (27.3%) in the 3-drug arm and 9 of 21 (42.9%) in the 5-drug arm had plasma HIV-1 RNA levels below detection by both standard reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction and single copy assay (P = 0.46, Fisher exact test). No significant differences in absolute levels of proviral DNA or changes in cell-associated RNA were seen during 96 weeks of therapy. Mean levels of infectious HIV-1 in resting CD4 T cells at week 96 in 7 subjects treated with 3-drugs and 13 with 5-drugs were 0.67 and 0.71 infectious units per million, respectively (P = 0.81). No differences were seen in quantitative or qualitative immunologic determinations including markers of immune activation. CONCLUSIONS Intensified 5-drug cART initiated during early infection fails to significantly further impact virologic or immunologic responses beyond those achieved with standard 3-drug PI-based cART.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Martin Markowitz
- *Aaron Diamond AIDS Research Center, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY; †The Rockefeller University, New York, NY; and ‡Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology, Karolinska Institute, Solna, Sweden (Dr Palmer is now with the Westmead Millennium Institute for Medical Research and University of Sydney, Westmead, New South Wales, Australia)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
8
|
Highly pathogenic adapted HIV-1 strains limit host immunity and dictate rapid disease progression. AIDS 2014; 28:1261-72. [PMID: 24732774 DOI: 10.1097/qad.0000000000000293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The study of HIV-1 rapid progressors has been limited to specific case reports. Nevertheless, identification and characterization of the viral and host factors involved in rapid progression are crucial when attempting to uncover the correlates of rapid disease outcome. DESIGN We carried out comparative functional analyses in rapid progressors (n = 46) and standard progressors (n = 46) early after HIV-1 seroconversion (≤1 year). The viral traits tested were viral replicative capacity, co-receptor usage, and genomic variation. Host CD8(+) T-cell responses, humoral activity, and HLA immunogenetic markers were also determined. RESULTS Our data demonstrate an unusual convergence of highly pathogenic HIV-1 strains in rapid progressors. Compared with standard progressors, rapid progressor viral strains show higher in-vitro replicative capacity (81.5 vs. 67.9%; P = 0.025) and greater X4/DM co-receptor usage (26.3 vs. 2.8%; P = 0.006) in early infection. Limited or absent functional HIV-1 CD8(+) T-cell responses and neutralizing activity were measured in rapid progressors. Moreover, the increase in common HLA allele-restricted CD8(+) T-cell escape mutations in rapid progressors acts as a signature of uncontrolled HIV-1 replication and early impairment of adaptive cellular responses. CONCLUSION Our data support a dominant role for viral factors in rapid progressors. Robust HIV-1 replication and intrinsic viral properties limit host adaptive immune responses, thus driving rapid disease progression.
Collapse
|
9
|
Abstract
The identification of phenotypically distinct HIV-1 variants with different prevalence during the progression of the disease has been one of the earliest discoveries in HIV-1 biology, but its relevance to AIDS pathogenesis remains only partially understood. The physiological basis for the phenotypic variability of HIV-1 was elucidated with the discovery of distinct coreceptors employed by the virus to infect susceptible cells. The role of the viral phenotype in the variable clinical course and treatment outcome of HIV-1 infection has been extensively investigated over the past two decades. In this review, we summarize the major findings on the clinical significance of the HIV-1 coreceptor usage.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hanneke Schuitemaker
- Department of Experimental Immunology, Sanquin Research, Landsteiner Laboratory, and Center for Infection and Immunity Amsterdam (CINIMA) at the Academic Medical Center of the University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 15, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
10
|
Markowitz M, Vaida F, Hare CB, Boden D, Mohri H, Hecht FM, Kalayjian RC, Conrad A, Mildvan D, Aberg J, Hogan C, Kilby JM, Balfour HH, Schafer K, Richman D, Little S. The virologic and immunologic effects of cyclosporine as an adjunct to antiretroviral therapy in patients treated during acute and early HIV-1 infection. J Infect Dis 2010; 201:1298-302. [PMID: 20235838 DOI: 10.1086/651664] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Acute human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection is characterized by high levels of immune activation. Immunomodulation with cyclosporine combined with antiretroviral therapy (ART) in the setting of acute and early HIV-1 infection has been reported to result in enhanced immune reconstitution. Fifty-four individuals with acute and early infection were randomized to receive ART with 4 weeks of cyclosporine versus ART alone. In 48 subjects who completed the study, there were no significant differences between treatment arms in levels of proviral DNA or CD4(+) T cell counts. Adjunctive therapy with cyclosporine in this setting does not provide apparent virologic or immunologic benefit.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Martin Markowitz
- Aaron Diamond AIDS Research Center, an affiliate of Rockefeller University, New York, New York, USA.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
11
|
Reynolds JL, Mahajan SD, Aalinkeel R, Nair B, Sykes DE, Agosto-Mujica A, Hsiao CB, Schwartz SA. Modulation of the proteome of peripheral blood mononuclear cells from HIV-1-infected patients by drugs of abuse. J Clin Immunol 2009; 29:646-56. [PMID: 19543960 DOI: 10.1007/s10875-009-9309-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2009] [Accepted: 05/28/2009] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION We used proteomic analyses to assess how drug abuse modulates immunologic responses to infections with the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1). METHODS Two-dimensional difference gel electrophoresis was utilized to determine changes in the proteome of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) isolated from HIV-1-positive donors that occurred after treatment with cocaine or methamphetamine. Both drugs differentially regulated the expression of several functional classes of proteins. We further isolated specific subpopulations of PBMC to determine which subpopulations were selectively affected by treatment with drugs of abuse. Monocytes, B cells, and T cells were positively or negatively selected from PBMC isolated from HIV-1-positive donors. RESULTS Our results demonstrate that cocaine and methamphetamine modulate gene expression primarily in monocytes and T cells, the primary targets of HIV-1 infection. Proteomic data were validated with quantitative, real-time polymerase chain reaction. These studies elucidate the molecular mechanisms underlying the effects of drugs of abuse on HIV-1 infections. Several functionally relevant classes of proteins were identified as potential mediators of HIV-1 pathogenesis and disease progression associated with drug abuse.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jessica L Reynolds
- Department of Medicine, Division of Allergy, Immunology and Rheumatology, Buffalo General Hospital, University at Buffalo, State University of New York at Buffalo, 311 MultiLab Research Building, Buffalo, NY,14203, USA.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|