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De A, Jee JP, Park YJ. Why Perfluorocarbon nanoparticles encounter bottlenecks in clinical translation despite promising oxygen carriers? Eur J Pharm Biopharm 2024; 199:114292. [PMID: 38636883 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejpb.2024.114292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2024] [Revised: 03/23/2024] [Accepted: 04/15/2024] [Indexed: 04/20/2024]
Abstract
Artificial Oxygen Carriers (AOCs) have emerged as ground-breaking biomedical solutions, showcasing tremendous potential for enhancing human health and saving lives. Perfluorocarbon (PFC)-based AOCs, in particular, have garnered significant interest among researchers, leading to numerous clinical trials since the 1980 s. However, despite decades of exploration, the success rate has remained notably limited. This comprehensive review article delves into the landscape of clinical trials involving PFC compounds, shedding light on the challenges and factors contributing to the lack of clinical success with PFC nanoparticles till date. By scrutinizing the existing trials, the article aims to uncover the underlying issues like pharmacological side effects of the PFC and the nanomaterials used for the designing, complex formulation strategy and poor clinical trial designs of the formulation. More over each generation of the PFC formulation were discussed with details for their failure in the clinical trials limitations that block the path of PFC-based AOCs' full potential. Furthermore, the review emphasizes a forward-looking approach by outlining the future pathways and strategies essential for achieving success in clinical trials. AOCs require advanced yet biocompatible single-componentformulations. The new trend might be a novel drug delivery technique, like gel emulsion or reverse PFC emulsion with fluoro surfactants. Most importantly, well-planned clinical trials may end in a success story.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anindita De
- College of Pharmacy, Ajou University, 206 Worldcup-ro , Yeongtong-gu, Suwon-si 16499, Republic of Korea.
| | - Jun-Pil Jee
- College of Pharmacy, Chosun University, 309 Pilmun-daero, Dong-gu, Gwangju 61452, Republic of Korea
| | - Young-Joon Park
- College of Pharmacy, Ajou University, 206 Worldcup-ro , Yeongtong-gu, Suwon-si 16499, Republic of Korea; Research Center, IMDpharm Inc., 17 Daehak 4-ro, Yeongtong-gu, Suwon-si 16226, Korea.
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Nocentini G, MacLaren G, Bartlett R, De Luca D, Perdichizzi S, Stoppa F, Marano M, Cecchetti C, Biasucci DG, Polito A, AlGhobaishi A, Guner Y, Gowda SH, Hirschl RB, Di Nardo M. Perfluorocarbons in Research and Clinical Practice: A Narrative Review. ASAIO J 2023; 69:1039-1048. [PMID: 37549675 DOI: 10.1097/mat.0000000000002017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Perfluorocarbons (PFCs) are organic liquids derived from hydrocarbons in which some of the hydrogen atoms have been replaced by fluorine atoms. They are chemically and biologically inert substances with a good safety profile. They are stable at room temperature, easy to store, and immiscible in water. Perfluorocarbons have been studied in biomedical research since 1960 for their unique properties as oxygen carriers. In particular, PFCs have been used for liquid ventilation in unusual environments such as deep-sea diving and simulations of zero gravity, and more recently for drug delivery and diagnostic imaging. Additionally, when delivered as emulsions, PFCs have been used as red blood cell substitutes. This narrative review will discuss the multifaceted utilization of PFCs in therapeutics, diagnostics, and research. We will specifically emphasize the potential role of PFCs as red blood cell substitutes, as airway mechanotransducers during artificial placenta procedures, as a means to improve donor organ perfusion during the ex vivo assessment, and as an adjunct in cancer therapies because of their ability to reduce local tissue hypoxia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giulia Nocentini
- From the Academic Department of Pediatrics (DPUO), Immune and Infectious Diseases Division, Research Unit of Primary Immunodeficiencies, IRCCS Bmbino Gesù Children's Hospital, Rome, Italy
| | - Graeme MacLaren
- Cardiothoracic Intensive Care Unit, National University Health System, Singapore
| | - Robert Bartlett
- Department of Surgery, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
| | - Daniele De Luca
- Division of Pediatrics and Neonatal Critical Care, "A. Béclère" Medical Centre, Paris Saclay University Hospitals, APHP, Paris, France
- Physiopathology and Therapeutic Innovation Unit-INSERM U999, Paris Saclay University, Paris, France
| | | | - Francesca Stoppa
- Pediatric Intensive Care Unit, Children's Hospital Bambino Gesù, IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Marco Marano
- Pediatric Intensive Care Unit, Children's Hospital Bambino Gesù, IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Corrado Cecchetti
- Pediatric Intensive Care Unit, Children's Hospital Bambino Gesù, IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Daniele G Biasucci
- Department of Clinical Science and Translational Medicine, "Tor Vergata" University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Angelo Polito
- Pediatric Intensive Care Unit, Department of Woman, Child, and Adolescent Medicine, Geneva University Hospital, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Abdullah AlGhobaishi
- Pediatric Critical Care Unit, Department of Pediatrics, King Fahad Armed Forces Hospital, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Yit Guner
- Department of Pediatric Surgery, Children's Hospital of Orange County and University of California Irvine, Orange, California
| | - Sharada H Gowda
- Departments of Surgery and Pediatrics, Baylor College of Medicine and Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, Texas
| | - Ronald B Hirschl
- Section of Pediatric Surgery, Department of Surgery, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
| | - Matteo Di Nardo
- Pediatric Intensive Care Unit, Children's Hospital Bambino Gesù, IRCCS, Rome, Italy
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Abstract
Ischemia or hypoxia can lead to pathological changes in the metabolism and function of tissues and then lead to various diseases. Timely and effective blood resuscitation or improvement of hypoxia is very important for the treatment of diseases. However, there is a need to develop stable, nontoxic, and immunologically inert oxygen carriers due to limitations such as blood shortages, different blood types, and the risk of transmitting infections. With the development of various technologies, oxygen carriers based on hemoglobin and perfluorocarbon have been widely studied in recent years. This paper reviews the development and application of hemoglobin and perfluorocarbon oxygen carriers. The design of oxygen carriers was analyzed, and their application as blood substitutes or oxygen carriers in various hypoxic diseases was discussed. Finally, the characteristics and future research of ideal oxygen carriers were prospected to provide reference for follow-up research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qingsong Ye
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Chemistry and Biomedicine Innovation Center, Medical School of Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China
| | - Deyuan Zheng
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Chemistry and Biomedicine Innovation Center, Medical School of Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China
| | - Kaiyuan Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Chemistry and Biomedicine Innovation Center, Medical School of Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China
| | - Jinhui Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Chemistry and Biomedicine Innovation Center, Medical School of Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Nano Technology, Nanjing University, 22 Hankou Road, Nanjing 210093, China
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Kakaei N, Amirian R, Azadi M, Mohammadi G, Izadi Z. Perfluorocarbons: A perspective of theranostic applications and challenges. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2023; 11:1115254. [PMID: 37600314 PMCID: PMC10436007 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2023.1115254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2022] [Accepted: 03/15/2023] [Indexed: 08/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Perfluorocarbon (PFC) are biocompatible compounds, chemically and biologically inert, and lacks toxicity as oxygen carriers. PFCs nanoemulsions and nanoparticles (NPs) are highly used in diagnostic imaging and enable novel imaging technology in clinical imaging modalities to notice and image pathological and physiological alterations. Therapeutics with PFCs such as the innovative approach to preventing thrombus formation, PFC nanodroplets utilized in ultrasonic medication delivery in arthritis, or PFC-based NPs such as Perfluortributylamine (PFTBA), Pentafluorophenyl (PFP), Perfluorohexan (PFH), Perfluorooctyl bromide (PFOB), and others, recently become renowned for oxygenating tumors and enhancing the effects of anticancer treatments as oxygen carriers for tumor hypoxia. In this review, we will discuss the recent advancements that have been made in PFC's applications in theranostic (therapeutics and diagnostics) as well as assess the benefits and drawbacks of these applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nasrin Kakaei
- Student Research Committee, School of Pharmacy, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran
- USERN Office, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran
| | - Roshanak Amirian
- Student Research Committee, School of Pharmacy, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran
- USERN Office, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran
| | - Mehdi Azadi
- Student Research Committee, School of Pharmacy, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran
- USERN Office, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran
| | - Ghobad Mohammadi
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center, Health Institute, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran
| | - Zhila Izadi
- USERN Office, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center, Health Institute, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran
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Mohanto N, Park YJ, Jee JP. Current perspectives of artificial oxygen carriers as red blood cell substitutes: a review of old to cutting-edge technologies using in vitro and in vivo assessments. JOURNAL OF PHARMACEUTICAL INVESTIGATION 2023; 53:153-190. [PMID: 35935469 PMCID: PMC9344254 DOI: 10.1007/s40005-022-00590-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2022] [Accepted: 07/02/2022] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Background Several circumstances such as accidents, surgery, traumatic hemorrhagic shock, and other causalities cause major blood loss. Allogenic blood transfusion can be resuscitative for such conditions; however, it has numerous ambivalent effects, including supply shortage, needs for more time, cost for blood grouping, the possibility of spreading an infection, and short shelf-life. Hypoxia or ischemia causes heart failure, neurological problems, and organ damage in many patients. To address this emergent medical need for resuscitation and to treat hypoxic conditions as well as to enhance oxygen transportation, researchers aspire to achieve a robust technology aimed to develop safe and feasible red blood cell substitutes for effective oxygen transport. Area covered This review article provides an overview of the formulation, storage, shelf-life, clinical application, side effects, and current perspectives of artificial oxygen carriers (AOCs) as red blood cell substitutes. Moreover, the pre-clinical (in vitro and in vivo) assessments for the evaluation of the efficacy and safety of oxygen transport through AOCs are key considerations in this study. With the most significant technologies, hemoglobin- and perfluorocarbon-based oxygen carriers as well as other modern technologies, such as synthetically produced porphyrin-based AOCs and oxygen-carrying micro/nanobubbles, have also been elucidated. Expert opinion Both hemoglobin- and perfluorocarbon-based oxygen carriers are significant, despite having the latter acting as safeguards; they are cost-effective, facile formulations which penetrate small blood vessels and remove arterial blockages due to their nano-size. They also show better biocompatibility and longer half-life circulation than other similar technologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nijaya Mohanto
- College of Pharmacy, Chosun University, 309 Pilmun-daero, Dong-gu, Gwangju, 61452 Republic of Korea
| | - Young-Joon Park
- College of Pharmacy, Ajou University, Suwon, Gyeonggi, Republic of Korea
| | - Jun-Pil Jee
- College of Pharmacy, Chosun University, 309 Pilmun-daero, Dong-gu, Gwangju, 61452 Republic of Korea
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Holman R, Lorton O, Guillemin PC, Desgranges S, Contino-Pépin C, Salomir R. Perfluorocarbon Emulsion Contrast Agents: A Mini Review. Front Chem 2022; 9:810029. [PMID: 35083198 PMCID: PMC8785234 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2021.810029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2021] [Accepted: 12/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Perfluorocarbon emulsions offer a variety of applications in medical imaging. The substances can be useful for most radiological imaging modalities; including, magnetic resonance imaging, ultrasonography, computed tomography, and positron emission tomography. Recently, the substance has gained much interest for theranostics, with both imaging and therapeutic potential. As MRI sequences improve and more widespread access to 19F-MRI coils become available, perfluorocarbon emulsions have great potential for new commercial imaging agents, due to high fluorine content and previous regulatory approval as antihypoxants and blood substitutes. This mini review aims to discuss the chemistry and physics of these contrast agents, in addition to highlighting some of the past, recent, and potential applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan Holman
- Image Guided Interventions Laboratory (GR-949), Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
- *Correspondence: Ryan Holman,
| | - Orane Lorton
- Image Guided Interventions Laboratory (GR-949), Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Pauline C. Guillemin
- Image Guided Interventions Laboratory (GR-949), Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | | | | | - Rares Salomir
- Image Guided Interventions Laboratory (GR-949), Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
- Radiology Department, University Hospitals of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
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Shalaby N, Dubois VP, Ronald J. Molecular imaging of cellular immunotherapies in experimental and therapeutic settings. Cancer Immunol Immunother 2021; 71:1281-1294. [PMID: 34657195 PMCID: PMC9122865 DOI: 10.1007/s00262-021-03073-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2020] [Accepted: 09/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Cell-based cancer immunotherapies are becoming a routine part of the armamentarium against cancer. While remarkable successes have been seen, including durable remissions, not all patients will benefit from these therapies and many can suffer from life-threatening side effects. These differences in efficacy and safety across patients and across tumor types (e.g., blood vs. solid), are thought to be due to differences in how well the immune cells traffic to their target tissue (e.g., tumor, lymph nodes, etc.) whilst avoiding non-target tissues. Across patient variability can also stem from whether the cells interact with (i.e., communicate with) their intended target cells (e.g., cancer cells), as well as if they proliferate and survive long enough to yield potent and long-lasting therapeutic effects. However, many cell-based therapies are monitored by relatively simple blood tests that lack any spatial information and do not reflect how many immune cells have ended up at particular tissues. The ex vivo labeling and imaging of infused therapeutic immune cells can provide a more precise and dynamic understanding of whole-body immune cell biodistribution, expansion, viability, and activation status in individual patients. In recent years numerous cellular imaging technologies have been developed that may provide this much-needed information on immune cell fate. For this review, we summarize various ex vivo labeling and imaging approaches that allow for tracking of cellular immunotherapies for cancer. Our focus is on clinical imaging modalities and summarize the progression from experimental to therapeutic settings. The imaging information provided by these technologies can potentially be used for many purposes including improved real-time understanding of therapeutic efficacy and potential side effects in individual patients after cell infusion; the ability to more readily compare new therapeutic cell designs to current designs for various parameters such as improved trafficking to target tissues and avoidance of non-target tissues; and the long-term ability to identify patient populations that are likely to be positive responders and at low-risk of side effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nourhan Shalaby
- Department of Medical Biophysics, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, Western University, London, Canada.,Robarts Research Institute, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - Veronica Phyllis Dubois
- Department of Medical Biophysics, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, Western University, London, Canada.,Robarts Research Institute, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - John Ronald
- Department of Medical Biophysics, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, Western University, London, Canada. .,Robarts Research Institute, London, Ontario, Canada. .,Lawson Health Research Institute, London, Ontario, Canada.
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Han Z, Tu X, Qiao L, Sun Y, Li Z, Sun X, Wu Z. Phototherapy and multimodal imaging of cancers based on perfluorocarbon nanomaterials. J Mater Chem B 2021; 9:6751-6769. [PMID: 34346475 DOI: 10.1039/d1tb00554e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Phototherapy, such as photodynamic therapy (PDT) and photothermal therapy (PTT), possesses unique characteristics of non-invasiveness and minimal side effects in cancer treatment, compared with conventional therapies. However, the ubiquitous tumor hypoxia microenvironments could severely reduce the efficacy of oxygen-consuming phototherapies. Perfluorocarbon (PFC) nanomaterials have shown great practical value in carrying and transporting oxygen, which makes them promising agents to overcome tumor hypoxia and extend reactive oxygen species (ROS) lifetime to improve the efficacy of phototherapy. In this review, we summarize the latest advances in PFC-based PDT and PTT, and combined multimodal imaging technologies in various cancer types, aiming to facilitate their application-oriented clinical translation in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhaoguo Han
- NHC and CAMS Key Laboratory of Molecular Probe and Targeted Theranostics, Molecular Imaging Research Center (MIRC), Harbin Medical University, China.
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Krafft MP, Riess JG. Therapeutic oxygen delivery by perfluorocarbon-based colloids. Adv Colloid Interface Sci 2021; 294:102407. [PMID: 34120037 DOI: 10.1016/j.cis.2021.102407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2021] [Revised: 03/18/2021] [Accepted: 03/25/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
After the protocol-related indecisive clinical trial of Oxygent, a perfluorooctylbromide/phospholipid nanoemulsion, in cardiac surgery, that often unduly assigned the observed untoward effects to the product, the development of perfluorocarbon (PFC)-based O2 nanoemulsions ("blood substitutes") has come to a low. Yet, significant further demonstrations of PFC O2-delivery efficacy have continuously been reported, such as relief of hypoxia after myocardial infarction or stroke; protection of vital organs during surgery; potentiation of O2-dependent cancer therapies, including radio-, photodynamic-, chemo- and immunotherapies; regeneration of damaged nerve, bone or cartilage; preservation of organ grafts destined for transplantation; and control of gas supply in tissue engineering and biotechnological productions. PFC colloids capable of augmenting O2 delivery include primarily injectable PFC nanoemulsions, microbubbles and phase-shift nanoemulsions. Careful selection of PFC and other colloid components is critical. The basics of O2 delivery by PFC nanoemulsions will be briefly reminded. Improved knowledge of O2 delivery mechanisms has been acquired. Advanced, size-adjustable O2-delivering nanoemulsions have been designed that have extended room-temperature shelf-stability. Alternate O2 delivery options are being investigated that rely on injectable PFC-stabilized microbubbles or phase-shift PFC nanoemulsions. The latter combine prolonged circulation in the vasculature, capacity for penetrating tumor tissues, and acute responsiveness to ultrasound and other external stimuli. Progress in microbubble and phase-shift emulsion engineering, control of phase-shift activation (vaporization), understanding and control of bubble/ultrasound/tissue interactions is discussed. Control of the phase-shift event and of microbubble size require utmost attention. Further PFC-based colloidal systems, including polymeric micelles, PFC-loaded organic or inorganic nanoparticles and scaffolds, have been devised that also carry substantial amounts of O2. Local, on-demand O2 delivery can be triggered by external stimuli, including focused ultrasound irradiation or tumor microenvironment. PFC colloid functionalization and targeting can help adjust their properties for specific indications, augment their efficacy, improve safety profiles, and expand the range of their indications. Many new medical and biotechnological applications involving fluorinated colloids are being assessed, including in the clinic. Further uses of PFC-based colloidal nanotherapeutics will be briefly mentioned that concern contrast diagnostic imaging, including molecular imaging and immune cell tracking; controlled delivery of therapeutic energy, as for noninvasive surgical ablation and sonothrombolysis; and delivery of drugs and genes, including across the blood-brain barrier. Even when the fluorinated colloids investigated are designed for other purposes than O2 supply, they will inevitably also carry and deliver a certain amount of O2, and may thus be considered for O2 delivery or co-delivery applications. Conversely, O2-carrying PFC nanoemulsions possess by nature a unique aptitude for 19F MR imaging, and hence, cell tracking, while PFC-stabilized microbubbles are ideal resonators for ultrasound contrast imaging and can undergo precise manipulation and on-demand destruction by ultrasound waves, thereby opening multiple theranostic opportunities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie Pierre Krafft
- University of Strasbourg, Institut Charles Sadron (CNRS), 23 rue du Loess, 67034 Strasbourg, France.
| | - Jean G Riess
- Harangoutte Institute, 68160 Ste Croix-aux-Mines, France
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Biomaterials for human space exploration: A review of their untapped potential. Acta Biomater 2021; 128:77-99. [PMID: 33962071 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2021.04.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2020] [Revised: 04/01/2021] [Accepted: 04/15/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
As biomaterial advances make headway into lightweight radiation protection, wound healing dressings, and microbe resistant surfaces, a relevance to human space exploration manifests itself. To address the needs of the human in space, a knowledge of the space environment becomes necessary. Both an understanding of the environment itself and an understanding of the physiological adaptations to that environment must inform design parameters. The space environment permits the fabrication of novel biomaterials that cannot be produced on Earth, but benefit Earth. Similarly, designing a biomaterial to address a space-based challenge may lead to novel biomaterials that will ultimately benefit Earth. This review describes several persistent challenges to human space exploration, a variety of biomaterials that might mitigate those challenges, and considers a special category of space biomaterial. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: This work is a review of the major human and environmental challenges facing human spaceflight, and where biomaterials may mitigate some of those challenges. The work is significant because a broad range of biomaterials are applicable to the human space program, but the overlap is not widely known amongst biomaterials researchers who are unfamiliar with the challenges to human spaceflight. Additionaly, there are adaptations to microgravity that mimic the pathology of certain disease states ("terrestrial analogs") where treatments that help the overwhelmingly healthy astronauts can be applied to help those with the desease. Advances in space technology have furthered the technology in that field on Earth. By outlining ways that biomaterials can promote human space exploration, space-driven advances in biomaterials will further biomaterials technology.
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Perfluorocarbon-based oxygen carriers: from physics to physiology. Pflugers Arch 2020; 473:139-150. [PMID: 33141239 PMCID: PMC7607370 DOI: 10.1007/s00424-020-02482-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2020] [Revised: 10/12/2020] [Accepted: 10/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Developing biocompatible, synthetic oxygen carriers is a consistently challenging task that researchers have been pursuing for decades. Perfluorocarbons (PFC) are fascinating compounds with a huge capacity to dissolve gases, where the respiratory gases are of special interest for current investigations. Although largely chemically and biologically inert, pure PFCs are not suitable for injection into the vascular system. Extensive research created stable PFC nano-emulsions that avoid (i) fast clearance from the blood and (ii) long organ retention time, which leads to undesired transient side effects. PFC-based oxygen carriers (PFOCs) show a variety of application fields, which are worthwhile to investigate. To understand the difficulties that challenge researchers in creating formulations for clinical applications, this review provides the physical background of PFCs’ properties and then illuminates the reasons for instabilities of PFC emulsions. By linking the unique properties of PFCs and PFOCs to physiology, it elaborates on the response, processing and dysregulation, which the body experiences through intravascular PFOCs. Thereby the reader will receive a scientific and easily comprehensible overview why PFOCs are precious tools for so many diverse application areas from cancer therapeutics to blood substitutes up to organ preservation and diving disease.
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