Prospective study of sequential reduction in immunosuppression, interferon alpha-2B, and chemotherapy for posttransplantation lymphoproliferative disorder

The IPTA Nashville consensus conference on post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorders after solid organ transplantation in children: IV-consensus guidelines for the management of post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorders in children and adolescents

The International Pediatric Transplant Association convened an expert consensus conference to assess current evidence and develop recommendations for various aspects of care relating to post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorders (PTLD) after pediatric solid organ transplantation. This report addresses the outcomes of deliberations by the PTLD Management Working Group. A strong recommendation was made for reduction in immunosuppression as the first step in management. Similarly, strong recommendations were made for the use of the anti-CD20 monoclonal antibody (rituximab) as was the case for chemotherapy in selected scenarios. In some scenarios, there is uncoupling of the strength of the recommendations from the available evidence in situations where such evidence is lacking but collective clinical experiences drive decision-making. Of note, there are no large, randomized phase III trials of any treatment for PTLD in the pediatric age group. Current gaps and future research priorities are highlighted.

Ibrutinib as part of risk-stratified treatment for posttransplant lymphoproliferative disorder: the phase 2 TIDaL trial

ABSTRACT

Posttransplant lymphoproliferative disorder (PTLD) is a rare complication of solid organ transplantation, and cytotoxic chemotherapy is associated with treatment-related morbidity and mortality. Current treatment takes a sequential, risk-stratified approach, and patients with low-risk disease after initial immunotherapy can avoid escalation to immunochemotherapy. TIDaL is a prospective, single-arm phase 2 trial investigating the activity and tolerability of ibrutinib combined with risk-stratified therapy for first-line treatment of PTLD. Eligible patients were adults with newly diagnosed CD20+ B-cell PTLD after solid organ transplant and performance status 0 to 2. Initial treatment comprised 49 days of ibrutinib 560 mg once daily, with 4 doses of weekly rituximab. Treatment response on interim scan and baseline International Prognostic Index were used to allocate patients to either a low-risk arm (who continued ibrutinib, alongside 4 further doses of 3-weekly rituximab) or high-risk (escalation to rituximab, cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, vincristine, and prednisone [R-CHOP] immunochemotherapy, with ibrutinib continuing in patients aged <65 years). The primary outcome was complete response on interim scan, achieved by 11 of 38 patients (29%; 95% confidence interval [CI], 15-46). This did not reach the prespecified threshold for clinically significant activity. Secondary outcomes included allocation to the low-risk arm (41% of patients), 2-year progression-free survival (58%; 95% CI, 44-76), and 2-year overall survival (76%; 95% CI, 63-91). Adverse events were mostly hematological, gastrointestinal, and infective. Although TIDaL does not support adding ibrutinib into first-line treatment of PTLD, increasing the proportion of patients who can be treated without cytotoxic chemotherapy remains an important aim of future research. This trial was registered at www.clinicaltrials.gov as #ISRCTN32667607.

Treatment of Epstein-Barr Virus infection in immunocompromised patients

Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV), is a ubiquitous γ-Herpesvirus that infects over 95% of the human population and can establish a life-long infection without causing any clinical symptoms in healthy individuals by residing in memory B-cells. Primary infection occurs in childhood and is mostly asymptomatic, however in some young adults it can result in infectious mononucleosis (IM). In immunocompromised individuals however, EBV infection has been associated with many different malignancies. Since EBV can infect both epithelial and B-cells and very rarely NK cells and T-cells, it is associated with both epithelial cancers like nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) and gastric carcinoma (GC), with lymphomas including Burkitt Lymphoma (BL) or Post-transplant Lymphoproliferative Disorder (PTLD) and rarely with NK/T-cell lymphomas. Currently there are no approved antivirals active in PTLD nor in any other malignancy. Moreover, lytic phase disease almost never requires antiviral treatment. Although many novel therapies against EBV have been described, the management and/or prevention of EBV primary infections or reactivations remains difficult. In this review, we discuss EBV infection, therapies targeting EBV in both lytic and latent state with novel therapeutics developed that show anti-EBV activity as well as EBV-associated malignancies both, epithelial and lymphoproliferative malignancies and emerging therapies targeting the EBV-infected cells.

Post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder associated Epstein-Barr virus DNAemia after liver transplantation in children: Experience from single center

The most prevalent malignancy that complicates both adult and pediatric solid organ transplantation is post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder (PTLD). This study aimed to analyze the clinical and pathological characteristics, treatments, and outcomes of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) DNAemia and PTLD in pediatric liver transplant recipients. A retrospective chart review was performed on 112 patients less than 18 years of age who underwent isolated orthotopic liver transplantation (OLT) between 2010 and 2022 at Ege University Children's Hospital. Data gathered for 1-year post-OLT included age at OLT, EBV, immunoglobulin (Ig)M/IgG status of the donor and recipient, indication for OLT, induction regimen, all immunosuppression levels, date and result of EBV polymerase chain reaction testing, rejection episodes documented by liver biopsy, and the development of PTLD. Forty-nine patients (43.75%) developed EBV DNAemia (median interval from surgery: 2 months, min-max: 2-36), of which 43 (87.8%) grafts came from living donors, and 6 (12.2%) came from deceased donors. Nine (18.4%) patients died during follow-up, and eight (16.3%) developed PTLD. Of these 8 patients; five patients developed EBV-related disease, one child developed hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis, one developed aplastic anemia, and one child developed B cell lymphoma. When PTLD patients and without-PTLD patients were compared, pediatric intensive care unit hospitalization, abnormal bone marrow biopsy findings, lymphadenopathy, age at diagnosis of EBV DNAemia, EBV viral load, tacrolimus (FK 506) pre-infection, were higher and tacrolimus 1-month levels were lower in patients with PTLD (p < 0.05). In logistic regression analysis, we showed that the age at diagnosis of EBV DNAemia was significantly higher in children with PTLD (p = 0.045; OR: 1.389; 95% CI: 1.007-1.914). PTLD is a rare but severe complication associated with EBV after OLT. This study demonstrated that PTLD is associated with older age, higher tacrolimus blood levels before EBV DNAemia, and higher peak EBV viral load at 1 month of EBV DNAemia.

Pediatric Kidney Transplantation: Cancer and Cancer Risk

Children with end-stage kidney disease (ESKD) face a lifetime of complex medical care, alternating between maintenance chronic dialysis and kidney transplantation. Kidney transplantation has emerged as the optimal treatment of ESKD for children and provides important quality of life and survival advantages. Although transplantation is the preferred therapy, lifetime exposure to immunosuppression among children with ESKD is associated with increased morbidity, including an increased risk of cancer. Following pediatric kidney transplantation, cancer events occurring during childhood or young adulthood can be divided into two broad categories: post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorders and non-lymphoproliferative solid tumors. This review provides an overview of cancer incidence, types, outcomes, and preventive strategies in this population.

Prevention of Oncogenic Gammaherpesvirinae (EBV and HHV8) Associated Disease in Solid Organ Transplant Recipients

Long-term risk for malignancy is higher among solid organ transplant (SOT) recipients compared to the general population. Four non-hepatitis viruses have been recognized as oncogenic in SOT recipients-EBV, cause of EBV-associated lymphoproliferative diseases; human herpes virus 8 (HHV8), cause of Kaposi sarcoma, primary effusion lymphoma and multicentric Castleman disease; human papilloma virus, cause of squamous cell skin cancers, and Merkel cell polyomavirus, cause of Merkel cell carcinoma. Two of these viruses (EBV and HHV8) belong to the human herpes virus family. In this review, we will discuss key aspects regarding the clinical presentation, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of diseases in SOT recipients associated with the two herpesviruses.

Screening and Management of PTLD

Posttransplant lymphoproliferative disorder (PTLD) represents a heterogeneous group of lymphoproliferative diseases occurring in the setting of immunosuppression following hematopoietic stem cells transplant and solid organ transplantation. Despite its overall low incidence, PTLD is a serious complication following transplantation, with a mortality rate as high as 50% in transplant recipients. Therefore, it is important to establish for each transplant recipient a personalized risk evaluation for the development of PTLD based on the determination of Epstein-Barr virus serostatus and viral load following the initiation of immunosuppression. Due to the dynamic progression of PTLD, reflected in the diverse pathological features, different therapeutic approaches have been used to treat this disorder. Moreover, new therapeutic strategies based on the administration of virus-specific cytotoxic T cells have been developed. In this review, we summarize the available data on screening and treatment to suggest a strategy to identify transplant recipients at a higher risk for PTLD development and to review the current therapeutic options for PTLD.

How I treat posttransplant lymphoproliferative disorder

Posttransplant lymphoproliferative disorder (PTLD) is an important and potentially life-threatening complication of solid organ transplant and hematopoietic stem cell transplant (HSCT). Given the heterogeneity of PTLD and the risk of infectious complications in patients with immunosuppression, the treatment of this disease remains challenging. Monomorphic PTLD and lymphoma of B-cell origin account for the majority of cases. Treatment strategies for PTLD consist of response-adapted, risk-stratified methods using immunosuppression reduction, immunotherapy, and/or chemotherapy. With this approach, ∼25% of the patients do not need chemotherapy. Outcomes for patients with high risk or those who do not respond to frontline therapies remain dismal, and novel treatments are needed in this setting. PTLD is associated with Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection in 60% to 80% of cases, making EBV-directed therapy an attractive treatment modality. Recently, the introduction of adoptive immunotherapies has become a promising option for refractory cases; hopefully, these treatment strategies can be used as earlier lines of therapy in the future.

Important Considerations in the Diagnosis and Management of Post-transplant Lymphoproliferative Disorder

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

A relative lack of molecular and clinical studies compared to other lymphoid cancers has historically made it difficult to determine optimal management approaches in post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder (PTLD). We sought to better define the "state of the science" in PTLD by examining recent advances in risk assessment, genomic profiling, and trials of PTLD-directed therapy.

RECENT FINDINGS

Several major clinical trials highlight risk-stratified sequential therapy incorporating rituximab with or without chemotherapy as a rational treatment strategy in patients with CD20+ PTLD who do not respond to reduction of immunosuppression alone. Epstein Barr virus (EBV)-targeted cytotoxic lymphocytes are a promising approach in patients with relapsed/refractory EBV+ PTLD, but dedicated clinical trials should determine how autologous chimeric antigen receptor T cell therapy (CAR-T) may be safely administered to PTLD patients. Sequencing studies underscore the important effect of EBV infection on PTLD pathogenesis, but comprehensive genomic and tumor microenvironment profiling are needed to identify biomarkers that predict response to treatment in this clinically heterogeneous disease.

Real-world evidence of the safety and survival with CD19 CAR-T cell therapy for relapsed/refractory solid organ transplant-related PTLD

The use of CD19 chimeric antigen receptor T-cell (CAR-T) therapy for relapsed/refractory solid organ transplantation (SOT)-related post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder (PTLD) is not well studied. We conducted a multicentre, retrospective analysis of adults with relapsed/refractory SOT-associated PTLD. Among 22 relapsed/refractory SOT-PTLD patients, the pathology was monomorphic B cell. Prior SOTs included 14 kidney (64%), three liver (14%), two heart (9%), one intestinal (5%), one lung (5%), and one pancreas after kidney transplant (5%). The median time from SOT to PTLD diagnosis was 107 months. Pre-CAR-T bridging therapy was used in 55% of patients, and immunosuppression was stopped completely before CAR-T infusion in 64%. Eighteen (82%) patients experienced cytokine release syndrome: one (5%) each grade (G) 3 and G4. The immune effector cell-associated neurotoxicity syndrome was observed in 16 (73%) patients: six (27%) G3 and two (9%) G4. The overall response rate was 64% (55% complete response). Three patients (14%) experienced allograft rejection after CAR-T. The two-year progression-free survival and overall survival rates were 35% and 58%, respectively. Additionally, the achievement of CR post-CAR-T was strongly associated with survival. Collectively, the safety and efficacy of CD19 CAR-T therapy in relapsed/refractory SOT-related PTLD appeared similar to pivotal CAR-T data, including approximately one-third of patients achieving sustained remission.

Multicenter study of pediatric Epstein-Barr virus-negative monomorphic post solid organ transplant lymphoproliferative disorders

BACKGROUND

Pediatric Epstein-Barr virus-negative monomorphic post solid organ transplant lymphoproliferative disorder [EBV(-)M-PTLD] comprises approximately 10% of M-PTLD. No large multi-institutional pediatric-specific reports on treatment and outcome are available.

METHODS

A multi-institutional retrospective review of solid organ recipients diagnosed with EBV(-)M-PTLD aged ≤21 years between 2001 and 2020 in 12 centers in the United States and United Kingdom was performed, including demographics, staging, treatment, and outcomes data.

RESULTS

Thirty-six patients were identified with EBV(-)M-PTLD. Twenty-three (63.9%) were male. Median age (range) at transplantation, diagnosis of EBV(-)M-PTLD, and interval from transplant to PTLD were 2.2 years (0.1-17), 14 years (3.0-20), and 8.5 years (0.6-18.3), respectively. Kidney (n = 17 [47.2%]) and heart (n = 13 [36.1%]) were the most commonly transplanted organs. Most were Murphy stage III (n = 25 [69.4%]). Lactate dehydrogenase was elevated in 22/34 (64.7%) and ≥2 times upper limit of normal in 11/34 (32.4%). Pathological diagnoses included diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (n = 31 [86.1%]) and B-non-Hodgkin lymphoma (B-NHL) not otherwise specified (NOS) (n = 5 [13.9%]). Of nine different regimens used, the most common were: pediatric mature B-NHL-specific regimen (n = 13 [36.1%]) and low-dose cyclophosphamide, prednisone, and rituximab (n = 9 [25%]). Median follow-up from diagnosis was 3.0 years (0.3-11.0 years). Three-year event-free survival (EFS) and overall survival (OS) were 64.8% and 79.9%, respectively. Of the seven deaths, six were from progressive disease.

CONCLUSIONS

EFS and OS were comparable to pediatric EBV(+) PTLD, but inferior to mature B-NHL in immunocompetent pediatric patients. The wide range of therapeutic regimens used directs our work toward developing an active multi-institutional registry to design prospective studies.

PLAIN LANGUAGE SUMMARY

Pediatric Epstein-Barr virus-negative monomorphic post solid organ transplant lymphoproliferative disorders (EBV(-)M-PTLD) have comparable outcomes to EBV(+) PTLD, but are inferior to diffuse large B-cell lymphoma in immunocompetent pediatric patients. The variety of treatment regimens used highlights the need to develop a pediatric PTLD registry to prospectively evaluate outcomes. The impact of treatment regimen on relapse risk could not be assessed because of small numbers. In the intensive pediatric B-non-Hodgkin lymphoma chemoimmunotherapy group, 11 of 13 patients remain alive in complete remission after 0.6 to 11 years.

In vitro and in vivo evidence that the switch from calcineurin to mTOR inhibitors may be a strategy for immunosuppression in Epstein-Barr virus-associated post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder

Post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder is a life-threatening complication of immunosuppression following transplantation mediated by failure of T cells to control Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-infected and transformed B cells. Typically, a modification or reduction of immunosuppression is recommended, but insufficiently defined thus far. In order to help delineate this, we characterized EBV-antigen-specific T cells and lymphoblastoid cell lines from healthy donors and in patients with a kidney transplant in the absence or presence of the standard immunosuppressants tacrolimus, cyclosporin A, prednisolone, rapamycin, and mycophenolic acid. Phenotypes of lymphoblastoid cell-lines and T cells, T cell-receptor-repertoire diversity, and T-cell reactivity upon co-culture with autologous lymphoblastoid cell lines were analyzed. Rapamycin and mycophenolic acid inhibited lymphoblastoid cell-line proliferation. T cells treated with prednisolone and rapamycin showed nearly normal cytokine production. Proliferation and the viability of T cells were decreased by mycophenolic acid, while tacrolimus and cyclosporin A were strong suppressors of T-cell function including their killing activity. Overall, our study provides a basis for the clinical decision for the modification and reduction of immunosuppression and adds information to the complex balance of maintaining anti-viral immunity while preventing acute rejection. Thus, an immunosuppressive regime based on mTOR inhibition and reduced or withdrawn calcineurin inhibitors could be a promising strategy for patients with increased risk of or manifested EBV-associated post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder.

Gastrointestinal manifestations, risk factors, and management in patients with post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder: A systematic review

BACKGROUND

Patients with a history of solid organ transplantation (SOT) or hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) are at an increased risk of developing post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder (PTLD). The gastrointestinal (GI) tract is commonly affected as it has an abundance of B and T cells.

AIM

To determine typical GI-manifestations, risk factors for developing PTLD, and management.

METHODS

Major databases were searched until November 2021.

RESULTS

Non-case report studies that described GI manifestations of PTLD, risk factors for developing PTLD, and management of PTLD were included. Nine articles written within the last 20 years were included in the review. All articles found that patients with a history of SOT, regardless of transplanted organ, have a propensity to develop GI-PTLD.

CONCLUSION

GI tract manifestations may be nonspecific; therefore, consideration of risk factors is crucial for identifying GI-PTLD. Like other lymphoma variants, PTLD is very aggressive making early diagnosis key to prognosis. Initial treatment is reduction of immunosuppression which is effective in more than 50% of cases; however, additional therapy including rituximab, chemotherapy, and surgery may also be required.

Occurrence of de novo Donor Specific Antibodies after Covid-19 in kidney transplant recipients is low despite immunosuppression modulation

Introduction

Methods

Results

Conclusion

Management and Outcomes of Diffuse Large B-cell Lymphoma Post-transplant Lymphoproliferative Disorder in the Era of PET and Rituximab: A Multicenter Study From the Australasian Lymphoma Alliance

There are limited data on post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder (PTLD) in the era of positron emission tomography (PET) and rituximab (R). Furthermore, there is limited data on the risk of graft rejection with modern practices in reduction in immunosuppression (RIS). We studied 91 patients with monomorphic diffuse large B-cell lymphoma PTLD at 11 Australian centers: median age 52 years, diagnosed between 2004 and 2017, median follow-up 4.7 years (range, 0.5-14.5 y). RIS occurred in 88% of patients. For patients initially treated with R-monotherapy, 45% achieved complete remission, rising to 71% with the addition of rituximab, cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, vincristine, prednisolone (R-CHOP) for those not in complete remission. For patients initially treated with R-CHOP, the complete remission rate was 76%. There was no difference in overall survival (OS) between R-monotherapy and R-chemotherapy patients. There was no difference in OS for patients with systemic lymphoma (n = 68) versus central nervous system (CNS) involvement (n = 23) (3-y OS 72% versus 73%; P = 0.78). Treatment-related mortality was 7%. End of treatment PET was prognostic for patients with systemic lymphoma with longer OS in the PET negative group (3-y OS 91% versus 57%; P = 0.01). Graft rejection occurred in 9% (n = 4 biopsy-proven; n = 4 suspected) during the entire follow-up period with no cases of graft loss. RIS and R-based treatments are safe and effective with a low likelihood of graft rejection and high cure rate for patients achieving complete remission with CNS or systemic PTLD.

Post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorders (PTLD)-from clinical to metabolic profiles-a single center experience and review of literature

Post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorders (PTLD) are among the most serious complications after solid organ transplantation (SOT). Monomorphic diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) is the most common subtype of PTLD. Historically, outcomes of PTLD have been poor with high mortality rates and allograft loss, although this has improved in the last 10 years. Most of our understanding about PTLD DLBCL is extrapolated from studies in non-PTLD DLBCL, and while several clinical factors have been identified and validated for predicting non-PTLD DLBCL outcomes, the molecular profile of PTLD DLBCL has not yet been characterized. Compartment-specific metabolic reprograming has been described in non-PTLD DLBCL with a lactate uptake metabolic phenotype with high monocarboxylate transporter 1 (MCT1) expression associated with worse outcomes. The aim of our study was to compare the outcomes of PTLD in our transplant center to historic cohorts, as well as study a subgroup of our PTLD DLBCL tumors and compare metabolic profiles with non-PTLD DLBCL. We performed a retrospective single institution study of all adult patients who underwent a SOT between the years 1992-2018, who were later diagnosed with PTLD. All available clinical information was extracted from the patients' medical records. Tumor metabolic markers were studied in a subgroup of PTLD DLBCL and compared to a group of non-PTLD DLBCL. Thirty patients were diagnosed with PTLD following SOT in our center. Median time from SOT to PTLD diagnosis was 62.8 months (IQR 7.6; 134.4), with 37% of patients diagnosed with early PTLD, and 63% with late PTLD. The most common PTLD subtype was DLBCL. Most patients were treated with reduction of their immunosuppression (RIS) including a group who were switched from calcineurin inhibitor (CNI) to mTOR inhibitor based IS, in conjunction with standard anti-lymphoma chemoimmunotherapy. Progression free survival of the PTLD DLBCL cohort was calculated at 86% at 1 year, and 77% at 3 and 5-years, with overall survival of 86% at 1 and 3-years, and 75% at 5 years. Death censored allograft survival in the kidney cohort was 100% at 1 year, and 93% at 3, 5 and 10 years. MCT1 H scores were significantly higher in a subset of the non-PTLD DLBCL patients than in a PTLD DLBCL cohort. Our data is concordant with improved PTLD outcomes in the last 10 years. mTOR inhibitors could be an alternative to CNI as a RIS strategy. Finally, PTLD DLBCL may have a distinct metabolic profile with reduced MCT1 expression compared to non-PTLD DLBCL, but further studies are needed to corroborate our limited cohort findings and to determine if a specific metabolic profile is associated with outcomes.

Epstein-Barr virus-associated post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorders: beyond chemotherapy treatment

Post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder (PTLD) is a rare but life-threatening complication of both allogeneic solid organ (SOT) and hematopoietic cell transplantation (HCT). The histology of PTLD ranges from benign polyclonal lymphoproliferation to a lesion indistinguishable from classic monoclonal lymphoma. Most commonly, PTLDs are Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) positive and result from loss of immune surveillance over EBV. Treatment for PTLD differs from the treatment for typical non-Hodgkin lymphoma because prognostic factors are different, resistance to treatment is unique, and there are specific concerns for organ toxicity. While recipients of HCT have a limited time during which they are at risk for this complication, recipients of SOT have a lifelong requirement for immunosuppression, so approaches that limit compromising or help restore immune surveillance are of high interest. Furthermore, while EBV-positive and EBV-negative PTLDs are not intrinsically resistant to chemotherapy, the poor tolerance of chemotherapy in the post-transplant setting makes it essential to minimize potential treatment-related toxicities and explore alternative treatment algorithms. Therefore, reduced-toxicity approaches such as single-agent CD20 monoclonal antibodies or bortezomib, reduced dosing of standard chemotherapeutic agents, and non-chemotherapy-based approaches such as cytotoxic T cells have all been explored. Here, we review the chemotherapy and non-chemotherapy treatment landscape for PTLD.

B Cell Lymphomas of the GI Tract

PURPOSE OF THE REVIEW

Primary GI lymphomas of B cell origin are a diverse group of lymphomas. In this article, we provide an overview of the diagnosis, pathologic and molecular features, and management of these varied lymphomas.

RECENT FINDINGS

The most common primary GI lymphomas are diffuse large B cell lymphoma (DLBCL) and marginal zone lymphomas (MZL), but follicular lymphomas (FL), mantle cell lymphomas (MCL), post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorders (PTLD), and Burkitt lymphoma of the GI tract also occur. Many features of these lymphomas are similar to their nodal counterparts, but certain clinical and biological aspects are unique. Diagnostic and treatment strategies for these lymphomas continue to evolve over time. There are ongoing discoveries about the unique pathophysiology, molecular characteristics, and complications of primary B cell GI lymphomas that are already leading to improvements in management of this histologically diverse set of lymphomas.

Analysis of Post-Transplant Lymphoproliferative Disorder (PTLD) Outcomes with Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV) Assessments-A Single Tertiary Referral Center Experience and Review of Literature

Post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorders (PTLDs) are lymphoid or plasmacytic proliferations ranging from polyclonal reactive proliferations to overt lymphomas that develop as consequence of immunosuppression in recipients of solid organ transplantation (SOT) or allogeneic bone marrow/hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Immunosuppression and Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection are known risk factors for PTLD. Patients with documented histopathologic diagnosis of primary PTLD at our institution between January 2000 and October 2019 were studied. Sixty-six patients with PTLD following SOT were followed for a median of 9.0 years. The overall median time from transplant to PTLD diagnosis was 5.5 years, with infant transplants showing the longest time to diagnosis at 12.0 years, compared to pediatric and adolescent transplants at 4.0 years and adult transplants at 4.5 years. The median overall survival (OS) was 19.0 years. In the monomorphic diffuse large B-cell (M-DLBCL-PTLD) subtype, median OS was 10.7 years, while median OS for polymorphic subtype was not yet reached. There was no significant difference in OS in patients with M-DLBCL-PTLD stratified by quantitative EBV viral load over and under 100,000 copies/mL at time of diagnosis, although there was a trend towards worse prognosis in those with higher copies.

Post-transplantation lymphoproliferative disorder after haematopoietic stem cell transplantation

Post-transplantation lymphoproliferative disorder (PTLD) is a severe complication of haematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT), occurring in a setting of immune suppression and dysregulation. The disease is in most cases driven by the reactivation of the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), which induces B cell proliferation through different pathomechanisms. Beyond EBV, many factors, variably dependent on HSCT-related immunosuppression, contribute to the disease development. PTLDs share several features with primary lymphomas, though clinical manifestations may be different, frequently depending on extranodal involvement. According to the WHO classification, histologic examination is required for diagnosis, allowing also to distinguish among PTLD subtypes. However, in cases of severe and abrupt presentation, a diagnosis based on a combination of imaging studies and EBV-load determination is accepted. Therapies include prophylactic and pre-emptive interventions, aimed at eradicating EBV proliferation before symptoms onset, and targeted treatments. Among them, rituximab has emerged as first-line option, possibly combined with a reduction of immunosuppression, while EBV-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes are effective and safe alternatives. Though prognosis remains poor, survival has markedly improved following the adoption of the aforementioned treatments. The validation of innovative, combined approaches is the future challenge.

Joining Efforts for PTLD: Lessons Learned from Comparing the Approach and Treatment Strategies Across the Pediatric and Adult Age Spectra

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorders are a rare and heterogeneous group of diseases, where large prospective studies have been difficult to perform and treatment paradigms are often based on retrospective studies. Here, we critically analyze and present the clinical algorithms commonly used for this disease, with a special focus on the challenges and differences of the approaches in the adult and pediatric populations.

RECENT FINDINGS

Clinical trials exploring combinations of immunochemotherapies with a sequential and risk-stratified strategy have demonstrated exciting results, but are hampered from specialty and age-determined silos. Approaches introducing novel-targeted therapies and cellular therapies are currently being explored with a goal of joining efforts across the pediatric and adult age spectra. We propose that future therapeutic approaches would benefit from combining pediatric and adult PTLD efforts, gaining from the experience garnered from the age- and subtype-specific tailored strategies, with the aim of limiting treatment-related toxicities while maximizing the efficacy. Joining of efforts holds enormous potential for accelerating access to novel therapeutic strategies for PTLD in the near future.

Outcomes of kidney retransplantation in recipients with prior posttransplant lymphoproliferative disorders: An analysis of the 2000-2019 UNOS/OPTN database

This study utilized the UNOS database to assess clinical outcomes after kidney retransplantation in patients with a history of posttransplant lymphoproliferative disease (PTLD). Among second kidney transplant patients from 2000 to 2019, 254 had history of PTLD in their first kidney transplant, whereas 28,113 did not. After a second kidney transplant, PTLD occurred in 2.8% and 0.8% of patients with and without history of PTLD, respectively (p = .001). Over a median follow-up time of 4.5 years after a second kidney transplant, 5-year death-censored graft failure was 9.5% vs. 12.6% (p = .21), all-cause mortality was 8.3% vs. 11.8% (p = .51), and 1-year acute rejection was 11.0% vs. 9.3% (p = .36) in the PTLD vs. non-PTLD groups, respectively. There was no significant difference in death-censored graft failure, mortality, and acute rejection between PTLD and non-PTLD groups in adjusted analysis and after propensity score matching. We conclude that graft survival, patient survival, and acute rejection after kidney retransplantation are comparable between patients with and without history of PTLD, but PTLD occurrence after kidney retransplantation remains higher in patients with history of PTLD.

Post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder in adult renal transplant recipients: case series and review of literature

Post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder (PTLD) is serious life-threating complication of transplantation. The clinical picture differs from lymphomas observed in the general population, with different manifestation, histopathology, higher aggressiveness with involvement of sites beyond the primary lymph node, and poorer outcome.

The objective of the study was to present nine cases of PTLD observed in our centre among the kidney transplant recipient population and discuss the results with up-to-date literature. We performed a retrospective single-centre assessment of PTLD incidence in the cohorts of kidney transplant recipients followed by our centre. We found nine cases of PTLD, five men and four woman, aged from 26 to 67 years at the time of diagnosis (mean [SD] 48 [5] years), transplanted between 1997 and 2013.

The disease was diagnosed between 2002 and 2017, from 6 to 440 months after transplantation (mean [SD] 96 [137] months). A diffuse large B-cell lymphoma was found in seven cases early as well as late after transplantation, and two patients presented T-cell lymphoma. Five patients achieved complete remission with no relapses after 6 to 13 months of treatment. In three cases the remission was achieved by switching to mammalian target of rapamycin inhibitors (mTORi) only. Four recipients died from 2 weeks to 15 months after PTLD was diagnosed.

Although the diagnostic criteria of different forms of PTLD are commonly known, rapid and correct diagnosis is not easy. PTLD is a relatively a rare disease, so there are too few studies and little consensus on the optimal treatment.

Reduction of immunosuppression for post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder (PTLD): a single-center experience of allograft survival outcomes

Post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder (PTLD) is a well-known complication of hematopoietic stem cell transplant and solid organ transplant. While reduction in immunosuppression (RIS) is the first-line treatment for PTLD, outcomes of allograft function as a result of RIS remain understudied. In this retrospective study, we examine rates of allograft rejection and graft failure after RIS in 141 patients diagnosed with PTLD at the University of Florida. Compared to prior literature demonstrating around 32-40% rate of allograft rejection as result of RIS, our institutional analysis revealed a much lower treatment-related allograft rejection rate of 18.4%. Out of the patients who experienced acute allograft rejection, 23.1% ultimately progressed to allograft failure. Interestingly, acute allograft rejection episodes during PTLD treatment were not statistically found to impact overall survival. RIS remains an overall beneficial treatment modality of PTLD due to its low allograft rejection rate relative to treatment rate.

Role of Radiotherapy in Post-transplant Lymphoproliferative Disorders: Three Case Reports and Review of the Literature

Post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder (PTLD) is an aggressive malignancy that occurs in patients who have undergone solid organ transplantation or hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. It develops as the result of uncontrolled cell proliferations owing to reduced immunological surveillance. PTLD may occur with a various spectrum of clinical presentations, including both localized and extensive disease. Management can be significantly variable according both to the clinical presentation and to the histologic features. The most important systemic treatment strategies are reduction of immunosuppressive therapy, chemotherapy, anti B-cell antibodies, especially rituximab and cytokine-based therapies. The localized form of PTLD could be efficiently treated, and potentially cured, with surgery or radiotherapy (RT). Involved site RT may be a feasible effective option for the treatment of patients with PTLD, given the excellent radio-sensitivity of lymphoid disorders. In this report, we describe 3 adult patients with PTLD treated with moderate-dose RT (24-36 Gy) having a good local control with negligible toxicity. We also review the literature data on the role of radiation therapy in this particular setting.

Phenotype of immunosuppression reduction after kidney transplantation

BACKGROUND

Immunosuppressive regimens are delivered without direct measure of the net state of immunosuppression. Besides therapeutic drug monitoring, adjustments in immunosuppressive medications are largely event-driven.

METHODS

We studied the clinical phenotype of immunosuppression reduction (ISR) among kidney transplant recipients from 2005 to 2012. Patients were grouped into: no ISR, ISR for infection, or ISR for intolerance. Outcome measures were rejection, rejection-free survival, and IFTA-free survival.

RESULTS

1114 adult kidney transplant recipients were included: 57% had no ISR, 16% had ISR for infection, and 27% had ISR for intolerance. ISR for infection was mainly on MMF, while ISR for intolerance was mainly on FK. ISR was associated with higher rates of acute rejection. The Kaplan-Meier analysis showed increased prevalence of rejection among patients with ISR due to infection (P = .003) or intolerance (P = .05). The risk of interstitial fibrosis and tubular atrophy was increased in patients with ISR due to infection (P = .001) or intolerance (P = .018).

CONCLUSION

Immunosuppression reduction is associated with increased prevalence of rejection. The clinical phenotype of ISR is dominated by IFTA remote from the onset of ISR. Solely focusing on acute rejection may underestimate effects of ISR on long-term graft function and survival.

Relationship between rabbit anti-thymocyte globulin and development of PTLD and its aggressive form in renal transplant population

Introduction

The aim of our study is to explore the relationship of rabbit anti-thymocyte globulin (R-ATG) on development of post-transplant lymphoproliferative disease (PTLD) and its aggressive forms (monomorphic PTLD and Hodgkin lymphoma) in renal transplant recipients.

Methodology

All patients diagnosed with PTLD post-renal transplant in the United States’ Organ Procurement and Transplantation Network from 2003 till 2013 and followed up till 2017 were retrospectively reviewed. Multi-variable logistic regression analysis assessed association of R-ATG to development of PTLD and its aggressive form.

Results

Risk of developing PTLD post renal transplant is 1.35%. In comparison to interleukin-2 blocker induction therapy, R-ATG is associated with increased risk of development of PTLD (Odds Ratio = 1.48, confidence interval ranges from 1.04 to 2.11, p = .02) and is associated with higher risk of development of aggressive PTLD (Odds Ratio = 1.83, confidence interval ranges from 1.001 to 3.34, p = .04).

Conclusion

We conclude that R-ATG induction is associated with a higher risk of PTLD and its aggressive form (monomorphic PTLD and Hodgkin lymphoma). Careful monitoring for development of PTLD in renal transplant recipients receiving R-ATG induction therapy is advised.

Valganciclovir prophylaxis delays onset of EBV viremia in high-risk pediatric solid organ transplant recipients

BACKGROUND

The role of antiviral prophylaxis to prevent Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) viremia or posttransplant lymphoproliferative disorder in pediatric solid organ transplant recipients is controversial. We examined whether valganciclovir (VAL) prophylaxis for cytomegalovirus infection was associated with EBV viremia following transplantation in EBV-naive children.

METHODS

A single-center, retrospective study was conducted of EBV-naive pediatric heart and renal transplant recipients with an EBV-positive donor from January 1996 to April 2017. VAL was tested for association with EBV viremia-free survival in the first 6 months posttransplantation when immunosuppressant exposure is the highest. Survival models evaluated VAL duration, with adjustment for other baseline confounders.

RESULTS

Among the cohort (n = 44), 3 (6.8%) were heart transplants, 25 (56.8%) received VAL, and 22 (50%) developed EBV viremia in the first-year posttransplantation. Mean time-to-viremia was 143 vs. 90 days for the VAL and no-VAL groups, respectively (p = 0.008), in the first 6 months. Only two patients developed viremia while on VAL. Each additional day of VAL was associated with 1.4% increase in viremia-free survival (p < 0.001). Multivariable modeling of VAL with other baseline risk factors did not identify other independent risk factors.

CONCLUSION

VAL is independently associated with delayed onset of EBV viremia, with prolongation of delay with each additional day of antiviral prophylaxis.

Post-transplantation lymphoproliferative disorders: Current concepts and future therapeutic approaches

Transplant recipients are vulnerable to a higher risk of malignancy after solid organ transplantation and allogeneic hematopoietic stem-cell transplant. Post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorders (PTLD) include a wide spectrum of diseases ranging from benign proliferation of lymphoid tissues to frank malignancy with aggressive behavior. Two main risk factors of PTLD are: Firstly, the cumulative immunosuppressive burden, and secondly, the oncogenic impact of the Epstein-Barr virus. The latter is a key pathognomonic driver of PTLD evolution. Over the last two decades, a considerable progress has been made in diagnosis and therapy of PTLD. The treatment of PTLD includes reduction of immunosuppression, rituximab therapy, either isolated or in combination with other chemotherapeutic agents, adoptive therapy, surgical intervention, antiviral therapy and radiotherapy. In this review we shall discuss the prevalence, clinical clues, prophylactic measures as well as the current and future therapeutic strategies of this devastating disorder.

Late-Onset Posttransplant Lymphoproliferative Disorders after Solid Organ Transplantation in Adults: A Case Series and Review of the Literature

The posttransplant lymphoproliferative disorders (PTLDs) are a heterogeneous group of neoplasms that have wide variety of clinical and histological presentations. The management of PTLDs is challenging due to variety of involvement sites and histological types. The length and type of immunosuppression are correlated with the emergence of PTLDs, and most of the cases appear within the first two years after transplant. This case series describes five late-onset PTLDs with rare histological features and multiorgan involvement.

Immunosuppression Is Associated With Clinical Features and Relapse Risk of B Cell Posttransplant Lymphoproliferative Disorder: A Retrospective Analysis Based on the Prospective, International, Multicenter PTLD-1 Trials

BACKGROUND

Current guideline recommendations for immunosuppression reduction after diagnosis of posttransplant lymphoproliferative disorder (PTLD) include stopping antimetabolites, reducing calcineurin inhibitors, and maintaining corticosteroids. However, the effect of immunosuppression on PTLD relapse risk after up-to-date therapy is unclear.

METHODS

This is a retrospective analysis of immunosuppression, patient baseline characteristics, and relapse risk measured as landmark time to progression (TTP) starting 1 year after start of therapy in 159 patients with B cell PTLD after solid organ transplantation treated in the prospective, international, multicenter PTLD-1 trials with either sequential treatment (rituximab followed by cyclophosphamide (CHOP-21 chemotherapy) 750 mg/m intravenously [IV] day (d) 1, doxorubicin 50 mg/m IV d1, vincristine 1.4 mg/m (maximum, 2 mg) IV d1, and prednisone 50 mg/m PO d1-5, every 21 days) or risk-stratified sequential treatment (rituximab followed by rituximab or rituximab (R-CHOP-21 immunochemotherapy) 375 mg/m IV day (d) 1, cyclophosphamide 750 mg/m IV d1, doxorubicin 50 mg/m IV d1, vincristine 1.4 mg/m (max. 2 mg) IV d1, and prednisone 50 mg/m PO d1-5, every 21 days).

RESULTS

Patient baseline characteristics at diagnosis of PTLD differed significantly depending on immunosuppression before diagnosis. Compared with immunosuppression before diagnosis, significantly fewer patients received an antimetabolite or a calcineurin inhibitor (CNI) after diagnosis of PTLD. Relapse risk measured as landmark TTP was significantly higher for patients on corticosteroids compared to all others (P = 0.010) as well as for patients on ciclosporin compared with those on tacrolimus (P = 0.002), but similar for those on antimetabolites compared with all others (P = 0.912). In a Cox regression analysis of landmark TTP, corticosteroid-containing immunosuppression after diagnosis of PTLD (P = 0.002; hazard ratio, 11.195) and age (P = 0.001; hazard ratio, 1.076/year) were identified as independent, significant risk factors for PTLD relapse.

CONCLUSIONS

In the prospective PTLD-1 trials, corticosteroid use after diagnosis of PTLD is associated with an increased risk of relapse, whereas the use of antimetabolites is not. These findings require prospective validation.

Outcome of Rituximab-Based Treatment for Post-Transplant Lymphoproliferative Disorder After Allogeneic Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation: A Single-Center Experience

Background

Post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder (PTLD) is a rare complication following solid organ transplantation and allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (Allo-HSCT), which gives rise to high mortality rates.

Material/Methods

This was a single-center retrospective analysis based on 27 patients who were diagnosed with PTLD following Allo-HSCT between January 1, 2007 and June 2018 at the Chinese PLA General Hospital. The purpose of this analysis was to investigate responses and prognostic factors of rituximab-based treatment.

Results

Twenty-seven patients were treated with rituximab. Among them, 20 of 27 patients (74.07%) had a complete response, 2 of 27 patients (7.41%) had a partial response, 5 of 27 patients (18.52%) had no response, and 22 of 27 patients (81.48%) cleared Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) copies. There were no obvious side effects. The 1-year overall survival (OS) estimate was 46.8% (95% CI, 23.1–65.5%). Univariate analysis revealed that lower OS was correlated with Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group (ECOG) score standard (3–4), Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) viral load (≥10⁶ copies/mL), bacteria or fungal infection, and EBV reactivation were positive after treatment with 1 or 2 doses of rituximab (P<0.05). Multivariate analysis showed that each of the following were independently associated with lower OS (P<0.05): female, ECOG score standard (3–4), and EBV reactivation were positive after treatment with 1 or 2 doses of rituximab.

Conclusions

Our results demonstrated that rituximab-based treatment was a safe and effective strategy for patients who were diagnosed with PTLD following Allo-HSCT. The identified prognostic factors may help to detect which PTLD patients are at a higher risk of mortality.

Comprehensive review of post-organ transplant hematologic cancers

A higher risk for a variety of cancers is among the major complications of posttransplantation immunosuppression. In this part of a continuing series on cancers posttransplantation, this review focuses on the hematologic cancers after solid organ transplantation. Posttransplantation lymphoproliferative disorders (PTLDs), which comprise the great majority of hematologic cancers, represent a spectrum of conditions that include, but are not limited to, the Hodgkin and non-Hodgkin lymphomas. The oncogenic Epstein-Barr virus is a key pathogenic driver in many PTLD cases, through known and unknown mechanisms. The other hematologic cancers include leukemias and plasma cell neoplasms (multiple myeloma and plasmacytoma). Clinical features vary across malignancies and location. Preventive screening strategies have been attempted mainly for PTLDs. Treatments include the chemotherapy regimens for the specific cancers, but also include reduction of immunosuppression, rituximab, and other therapies.

Post-transplantation lymphoproliferative disorder with gastrointestinal involvement

Post-transplantation lymphoproliferative disorders (PTLDs) are lymphoid proliferations or lymphomas that are the second most common tumors in adult transplant recipients. Most cases of PTLD are attributed to Epstein-Barr virus, which induces B-cell proliferation and occurs in the setting of severe immunosuppression after solid organ or bone marrow transplantation. The disorder is seen in 1-3% of liver transplant recipients and has a variable presentation chronology. Herein, we chronicle a case of aggressive B-cell lymphoma (PTLD WHO class-3) presenting with isolated gastrointestinal involvement in an Epstein-Barr virus-negative patient with living-donor liver transplantation, 4 years after receiving the transplant. While typical symptoms may be elusive in the immunocompromised setting, clinicians should be vigilant for underlying PTLD with isolated gastrointestinal involvement. Prompt detection and characterization by endoscopic evaluation with biopsy should be particularly stressed in such patients.

Recurrent hepatocellular carcinoma in liver transplant recipients: Parameters affecting time to recurrence, treatment options and survival in the sorafenib era

Background

A growing number of patients with hepatocellular carcinoma undergo liver transplantation, but there is little data on recurrence and its treatment in the posttransplant setting.

Methods

This article presents a retrospective analysis of adult hepatocellular carcinoma patients. The aim of the study was to characterize the clinical pattern of posttransplant hepatocellular carcinoma recurrence, treatment options in recurrence and overall survival after liver transplantation and after recurrence.

Results

A total of 139 patients with histological proven hepatocellular carcinoma was included in the study. The median follow-up after liver transplantation was 37.2 months. Twenty-four of 139 patients experienced a recurrence. In 72.7% of the cases, the hepatocellular carcinoma recurred outside the transplant. Median overall survival after recurrence was 23.1 months. A total of 68.2% of patients received a mean of 2.2 treatments for posttransplant hepatocellular carcinoma recurrence. While on treatment with sorafenib, the use of mTOR inhibitors and radiotherapy had no statistically significant effect on overall survival, complete surgical resection of metastatic lesions significantly improved overall survival. Non-resectable patients with isolated hepatic relapse also benefited from local control strategies.

Conclusions

Posttransplant hepatocellular carcinoma recurrence frequently is located outside the transplant, and despite the proven efficacy of sorafenib, complete surgical resection of metastatic lesions remains the hallmark of treatment.

Decreased survival in hepatitis C patients with monomorphic post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder after liver transplantation treated with frontline immunochemotherapy

Post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder (PTLD) develops in 1-3% of liver transplant recipients and no consensus exists about therapeutic management. From 2006 to 2016, 1489 liver transplants were performed at our institution with 20 patients (incidence 1.3%) developing PTLD. Hepatitis C virus (HCV) was the leading cause (n = 10) of liver transplant in PTLD patients. Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma was the most frequent histologic subtype (n = 17), and we report our experience in the management of these patients. Patients were treated with frontline immunochemotherapy without immunosuppression reduction. All evaluable patients achieved a complete remission. Statistically significant decreased survival was identified in HCV-positive patients. Six patients (60%) exhibited increases in HCV RNA levels during therapy. Four patients (40%) developed graft failure and three of them (30%) died from liver dysfunction. This is the first study providing evidence of decreased survival in HCV-positive PTLD patients after liver transplant receiving immunochemotherapy.

Posttransplant Lymphoproliferative Disease Presenting as an Extracranial Mass

Posttransplant lymphoproliferative disease is a serious complication following stem cell and solid organ transplantation. Early recognition of the disease is important in facilitating timely therapy and improving long-term outcomes. We report a renal transplant recipient presenting with an extracranial frontoparietal soft tissue mass that was subsequently diagnosed as a B-cell lymphoma. The patient was treated successfully with immunosuppression reduction, anti-CD20 monoclonal antibody therapy, and cytotoxic chemotherapy. Our case highlights the importance of recognizing soft tissue masses in the head and neck as a potential clinical manifestation of PTLD in solid organ transplant recipients.

Graft outcomes following diagnosis of post-transplant lymphoproliferative disease in pediatric kidney recipients: a retrospective study

Data related to graft outcomes following post-transplant lymphoproliferative disease (PTLD) in pediatric kidney transplantation are scarce. Data were analyzed retrospectively from 12 children (eight boys) for 3 years after diagnosis of PTLD, with a loss of follow-up after 2 years in two of 12. In all cases, intensity of immunosuppressive therapy was reduced, which switched from calcineurin inhibitor to a mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) inhibitor in ten cases. Nine children were treated with six doses of rituximab according to the PED-PTLD-2005 protocol, with additional treatment in one child as per protocol. One patient received EuroNet-PHL C1. In four patients, donor-specific antibodies were detected after PTLD diagnosis at 3, 4, 5 and 7 years, respectively. One patient developed chronic antibody-mediated rejection (cAMR) 12 years after diagnosis, losing the graft 1 year later. Three patients with recurrence of the original disease also lost their grafts, one at the time of diagnosis of PTLD, and two after 4 years. Range-based analysis of variance showed that there was no decrease in estimated GFR at 1, 2, or 3 years after diagnosis of PTLD (P = 0.978). In conclusion, treatment of PTLD with reduced immunosuppression is safe and efficient. This may be due to B-cell-depleting therapy of PTLD with rituximab.

Chemotherapy and Transplantation: The Role of Immunosuppression in Malignancy and a Review of Antineoplastic Agents in Solid Organ Transplant Recipients

It is estimated that solid organ transplant recipients have a two- to fourfold greater overall risk of malignancy than the general population. Some of the most common malignancies after transplant include skin cancers and posttransplant lymphoproliferative disorder. In addition to known risk factors such as environmental exposures, genetics, and infection with oncogenic viruses, immunosuppression plays a large role in the development of cancer through the loss of the immunosurveillance process. The purpose of this article is to explain the role of immunosuppression in cancer and to review the classes of chemotherapeutics. The field of anticancer drugs is continually expanding and developing, with limited data on use in transplant recipients. This article aims to provide information on class review, adverse effects, dose adjustments, and drug interactions that are pertinent to the care of transplant recipients.

Treatment of post-transplantation lymphoproliferative disorders after kidney transplant with rituximab and conversion to m-TOR inhibitor

BACKGROUND

Post-transplantation lymphoproliferative disorders are serious complications of organ transplantation which treatment is not yet standardized.

OBJECTIVE

To describe the clinical response, overall and graft survival of patients in our center with this complication after kidney transplantation, which received rituximab as part of their treatment as well as conversion to m-TOR.

METHODS

Retrospective study, which included patients, diagnosed with post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorders after kidney transplantation from January 2011 to July 2014.

RESULTS

Eight cases were found with a wide spectrum of clinical presentations. Most had monomorphic histology, 85% were associated with Epstein-Barr virus, 25% of patients had tumor involvement of the renal graft, and 12.5% ​​had primary central nervous system lymphoma. All patients were managed with reduction of immunosuppression, conversion to m-TOR (except one who lost the graft at diagnosis) and rituximab-based therapy. The overall response rate was 87.5% (62.5% complete response, 25% partial response). Survival was 87.5% with a median follow-up of 34 months. An additional patient lost the graft, with chronic nephropathy already known. All the remaining patients had stable renal function.

CONCLUSIONS

There are no standardized treatment regimens for lymphoproliferative disorders after kidney transplantation, but these patients can be managed successfully with reduction of immunosuppression, conversion to m-TOR and rituximab-based schemes.

Epstein-Barr virus-associated post-transplantation lymphoproliferative disorder: potential treatments and implications for nursing practice

BACKGROUND

Considered to be a secondary malignancy, Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-associated post-transplantation lymphoproliferative disorder (PTLD) is a potentially fatal complication of hematopoietic cell transplantation (HCT). With 50%-70% of all reported cases of PTLD being associated with EBV, the incidence in HCT is relatively low. However, mortality rates in this population of patients are 70%-90%.

OBJECTIVES

The focus of this article is to discuss published literature regarding the risk factors, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, prevention, and potential treatment options for EBV-PTLD, as well as nursing implications and the importance of patient education in high-risk HCT recipients.

METHODS

This review of literature focused on locating, summarizing, and synthesizing data from published clinical studies that focused on treatment options, guidelines, and recommendations for EBV-PTLD. CINAHL® and PubMed databases were used to search for articles published within the past 10 years that included the following key words: post-transplantation lymphoproliferative disorder, Epstein-Barr virus, and hematopoietic cell transplantation.

FINDINGS

Prevention and preemptive therapy are paramount when caring for patients undergoing HCT. Early determination of risk, close observation of EBV DNA levels in the blood, and prompt initiation of therapy are essential to improving patients' overall prognosis. Reduction in immunosuppression is considered first-line therapy for those diagnosed with EBV-PTLD. The literature also supports rituximab-based therapies, administration of EBV-specific cytotoxic T cells, and donor lymphocyte infusion as treatment strategies.

Primary Intestinal Hodgkin Lymphoma Mimicking Intraabdominal Abscess in a Renal Transplant Recipient: A Case Report

INTRODUCTION

Post-transplant lymphoproliferative disease (PTLD) comprises a variety of lymphoid and plasma cell disorders arising in patients with a solid organ transplant. Monomorphic lymphomas represent the most significant part of this wide spectrum, with the overall risk rising with the aggressiveness of lymphoid proliferation in comparison to the general population. The development of Hodgkin lymphoma is very rare in transplant recipients, comprising less than 6% of all monomorphic PTLD, while cases of primary intestinal Hodgkin lymphoma in these circumstances are anecdotal.

CASE REPORT

We describe an exceptional case of intestinal Hodgkin lymphoma mimicking an intra-abdominal abscess that developed in a transplant recipient 19 years after kidney transplantation. By presenting this case, we wish to emphasize the importance of suitable diagnostic pathways in transplant recipients experiencing prolonged fever episodes or masses of unknown origin, thus raising the awareness of possible PTLD development in such patients.

CONCLUSION

The lack of information about transplant recipients with Hodgkin PTLD regarding the site of involvement and type of treatment suggests the necessity of conducting larger international studies aimed at providing further insight into this particular group of patients.

Risk-adapted Treatment for Severe B-Lineage Posttransplant Lymphoproliferative Disease After Solid Organ Transplantation in Children

BACKGROUND

Optimal management of posttransplant lymphoproliferative disease (PTLD) remains to be defined due to heterogeneity of this condition and lack of predictors of the outcome. Here we report our experience with pediatric PTLD nonresponsive to immunosuppression (IS) withdrawal, managed after stratification into high and low risk according to the presenting features.

METHODS

This is a single-center retrospective review of prospectively enrolled patients. From 2001 to 2011, 17 children were diagnosed with severe B-lineage, CD20+, PTLD after a median of 37 months (range, 5-93) from liver (12), heart (4), or multiorgan (1) transplantation. Treatment was tailored on 2 risk groups: (1) standard-risk (SR) patients received IS reduction and rituximab; (2) high-risk (HR) patients received IS discontinuation, rituximab and polychemotherapy.

RESULTS

The cumulative incidence of rejection at 1 and 5 years after the diagnosis of PTLD was 35% (95% confidence interval [95% CI], 18-69%) and 53% (33-85%), respectively, whereas the disease-free survival at 1 and 5 years was 94% (95% CI, 65-99%) and 75% (45-90%), respectively. Three children died, PTLD-free, from different transplant-related complications: primary nonfunction after retransplantation (liver), cytomegalovirus disease 21 months after PTLD treatment (liver), graft dysfunction 25 months after PTLD (heart).

CONCLUSIONS

Severe B-lineage PTLD after solid organ transplantation may be classified as SR or HR and treated accordingly with a tailored protocol obtaining a satisfactory long-term outcome. This approach accomplishes the control of lymphoproliferation in severe forms as well as the minimization of toxicity in milder PTLDs.

A 47-year-old stem cell transplant recipient with fever, cough and chest pain

Infections and malignancies are among the most serious complications that follow organ or stem cell transplantation. They may have a mild course, and nonspecific and overlapping manifestations. The present article describes a case of symptomatic nodular pulmonary disease that complicated hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. It was diagnosed to be post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder, a potential sequela of immunosuppression and a very difficult entity to treat in profoundly immunosuppressed patients.