Mechanisms of sudden unexplained death in epilepsy

Status Epilepticus a risk factor for Sudden Unexpected Death in Epilepsy (SUDEP): A scoping review and narrative synthesis

BACKGROUND

Sudden Unexpected Death in Epilepsy (SUDEP) is a leading cause of mortality among people with epilepsy (PWE). Risk factors such as increased seizure frequency, drug-resistant epilepsy, and early epilepsy onset are well recognised. However, little evidence of the role of seizure severity, specifically Status Epilepticus (SE) on SUDEP risk exists.

OBJECTIVE

To identify mechanisms, risk factors and clinical characteristics overlap between SE and SUDEP.

METHODS

A scoping review using the PRISMA-ScR model was performed by two reviewers using suitable search terms. The PubMed Advanced Search tool along with the ancestry method was utilised to identify suitable articles published between 06/1992 and 05/2023. Quantitative, qualitative and mixed method studies were included. A narrative synthesis was undertaken and is presented as themes and subthemes.

RESULTS

Of 5453 papers identified in the preliminary search, 50 studies were suitable for final analysis. Key themes include overlap between SE complications and SUDEP risk factors (pharmaco-resistant generalised tonic-clonic epilepsy, intellectual disability), overlap of shared risk factors (alcohol abuse, developmental epileptic encephalopathies) and clinical characteristics (cardiac and respiratory). SE's role in development of drug-resistant epilepsy was the strongest potential mechanism for SE's contribution to SUDEP risk. SE's contribution to recurrent ictal hypoxaemia episodes and lowered heart rate variability suggests a relationship with SUDEP needing further study.

CONCLUSIONS

This review identifies research areas of influence of SE on SUDEP risk. Such research could inform counselling for patients concerned about seizure severity in relation to their SUDEP risk and optimise surveillance and subsequent management of post-SE epileptogenic outcomes.

Sudden unexpected death in epilepsy: A critical view of the literature

Sudden unexpected death in epilepsy (SUDEP) is a sudden, unexpected, witnessed or unwitnessed, non-traumatic and non-drowning death, occurring in benign circumstances, in an individual with epilepsy, with or without evidence for a seizure and excluding documented status epilepticus in which postmortem examination does not reveal other causes of death. Lower diagnostic levels are assigned when cases met most or all of these criteria, but data suggested more than one possible cause of death. The incidence of SUDEP ranged from 0.09 to 2.4 per 1000 person-years. Differences can be attributed to the age of the study populations (with peaks in the 20-40-year age group) and the severity of the disease. Young age, disease severity (in particular, a history of generalized TCS), having symptomatic epilepsy, and the response to antiseizure medications (ASMs) are possible independent predictors of SUDEP. The pathophysiological mechanisms are not fully known due to the limited data available and because SUDEP is not always witnessed and has been electrophysiologically monitored only in a few cases with simultaneous assessment of respiratory, cardiac, and brain activity. The pathophysiological basis of SUDEP may vary according to different circumstances that make that particular seizure, in that specific moment and in that patient, a fatal event. The main hypothesized mechanisms, which could contribute to a cascade of events, are cardiac dysfunction (included potential effects of ASMs, genetically determined channelopathies, acquired heart diseases), respiratory dysfunction (included postictal arousal deficit for the respiratory mechanism, acquired respiratory diseases), neuromodulator dysfunction, postictal EEG depression and genetic factors.

SCN5A channelopathy: arrhythmia, cardiomyopathy, epilepsy and beyond

Influx of sodium ions through voltage-gated sodium channels in cardiomyocytes is essential for proper electrical conduction within the heart. Both acquired conditions associated with sodium channel dysfunction (myocardial ischaemia, heart failure) as well as inherited disorders secondary to mutations in the gene SCN5A encoding for the cardiac sodium channel Nav1.5 are associated with life-threatening arrhythmias. Research in the last decade has uncovered the complex nature of Nav1.5 distribution, function, in particular within distinct subcellular subdomains of cardiomyocytes. Nav1.5-based channels furthermore display previously unrecognized non-electrogenic actions and may impact on cardiac structural integrity, leading to cardiomyopathy. Moreover, SCN5A and Nav1.5 are expressed in cell types other than cardiomyocytes as well as various extracardiac tissues, where their functional role in, e.g. epilepsy, gastrointestinal motility, cancer and the innate immune response is increasingly investigated and recognized. This review provides an overview of these novel insights and how they deepen our mechanistic knowledge on SCN5A channelopathies and Nav1.5 (dys)function. This article is part of the theme issue 'The heartbeat: its molecular basis and physiological mechanisms'.

Sudden Unexpected Death in Epilepsy: A Report of Three Commonly Encountered Anatomic Findings in the Forensic Setting With Recommendations for Best Practices

ABSTRACT

Sudden unexplained death in epilepsy (SUDEP) is the most common cause of death in children and young adults with epilepsy with epileptic patients harboring a 27 times increased risk of death from SUDEP. Structural brain lesions are encountered in up to 50% of autopsy cases. In this case series, we report 3 previously undiagnosed structural causes of SUDEP discovered at autopsy at our institution including schizencephaly, ganglioglioma, and focal cortical dysplasia. Our major recommendation is in cases with suspected SUDEP, formal neuropathological examination and tissue sampling should be employed to identify and characterize specific potential anatomic etiologies.

Risk of SUDEP during infancy

Risk of sudden unexpected death in epilepsy (SUDEP) in children is influenced by different factors such as etiology, seizure type and frequency, treatment, and environment. A greater severity of epilepsy, in terms of seizure frequency, seizures type, especially with nocturnal generalized tonic-clonic seizures (GTCS), and resistance to anti-seizure medication are predisposing factors to SUDEP. Potential mechanisms of SUDEP might involve respiratory, cardiovascular, and central autonomic dysfunctions, either combined or in isolation. Patients with epilepsy carrying mutations in cardiac channelopathy genes might be disposed to seizure-induced arrhythmias. Other than in channelopathies, SUDEP has been reported in further patients with genetic epilepsies due to mutations of genes such as DEPDC5, TBC1D24, FHF1, or 5q14.3 deletion. Age-related electro-clinical differences in GTCS may therefore be relevant in explaining differences in SUDEP between adults and children. Typical GTCS represent a rare seizure type in infants and toddlers, they are characterized by a shorter tonic phase and, in direct proportion, by shorter postictal generalized EEG suppression (PGES). The presence of night-time supervision has been found to reduce SUDEP risk, likely reducing SUDEP incidence in children. Reconsideration of safety protocols in epilepsy monitoring units with the aim of reducing the risk of SUDEP, and the use of devices for seizure detection, might contribute to reduce the risk of death in patients affected by epilepsy. This article is part of the Special Issue "Severe Infantile Epilepsies".

Sudden unexpected death in epilepsy: Respiratory mechanisms

Epilepsy is one of the most common chronic neurologic diseases, with a prevalence of 1% in the US population. Many people with epilepsy live normal lives, but are at risk of sudden unexpected death in epilepsy (SUDEP). This mysterious comorbidity of epilepsy causes premature death in 17%-50% of those with epilepsy. Most SUDEP occurs after a generalized seizure, and patients are typically found in bed in the prone position. Until recently, it was thought that SUDEP was due to cardiovascular failure, but patients who died while being monitored in hospital epilepsy units revealed that most SUDEP is due to postictal central apnea. Some cases may occur when seizures invade the amygdala and activate projections to the brainstem. Evidence suggests that the pathophysiology is linked to defects in the serotonin system and central CO₂ chemoreception, and that there is considerable overlap with mechanisms thought to be involved in sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS). Future work is needed to identify biomarkers for patients at highest risk, improve ascertainment, develop methods to alert caregivers when SUDEP is imminent, and find effective approaches to prevent these fatal events.

Louis EK, Reichard RR, Edwards WD, Ackerman MJ, Somers VK. Confirmation of Cause of Death Via Comprehensive Autopsy and Whole Exome Molecular Sequencing in People With Epilepsy and Sudden Unexpected Death

Background Sudden cardiac arrest is the leading mode of death in the United States. Epilepsy affects 1% of Americans; yet epidemiological data show a prevalence of 4% in cases of sudden cardiac arrest. Sudden unexpected death in epilepsy (SUDEP) may share features with sudden cardiac arrest. The objective of this study was to report autopsy and genomic findings in a large cohort of SUDEP cases. Methods and Results Mayo Clinic Sudden Death Registry containing cases (ages 0-90 years) of sudden unexpected and unexplained deaths 1960 to present was queried. Exome sequencing performed on decedent cases. From 13 687 cases of sudden death, 656 (4.8%) had a history of seizures, including 368 confirmed by electroencephalography, 96 classified as SUDEP, 58 as non-SUDEP, and 214 as unknown (insufficient records). Mean age of death in SUDEP was 37 (±19.7) years; 56 (58.3%) were male; 65% of deaths occurred at night; 54% were found in bed; and 80.6% were prone. Autopsies were obtained in 83 cases; bystander coronary artery disease was frequently reported as cause of death; nonspecific fibrosis was seen in 32.6% of cases, in structurally normal hearts. There were 4 cases of Dravet syndrome with pathogenic variants in SCN1A gene. Using whole exome sequencing in 11 cases, 18 ultrarare nonsynonymous variants were identified in 6 cases including CACNB2, RYR2, CLNB, CACNA1H, and CLCN2. Conclusions This study examined one of the largest single-center US series of SUDEP cases. Several cases were reclassified as SUDEP, 15% had an ECG when alive, and 11 (11.4%) had blood for whole exome sequencing analysis. The most frequent antemortem genetic finding was pathogenic variants in SCN1A; postmortem whole exome sequencing identified 18 ultrarare variants.

Elevated blood purine levels as a biomarker of seizures and epilepsy

OBJECTIVE

There is a major unmet need for a molecular biomarker of seizures or epilepsy that lends itself to fast, affordable detection in an easy-to-use point-of-care device. Purines such as adenosine triphosphate and adenosine are potent neuromodulators released during excessive neuronal activity that are also present in biofluids. Their biomarker potential for seizures and epilepsy in peripheral blood has, however, not yet been investigated. The aim of the present study was to determine whether blood purine nucleoside measurements can serve as a biomarker for the recent occurrence of seizures and to support the diagnosis of epilepsy.

METHODS

Blood purine concentrations were measured via a point-of-care diagnostic technology based on the summated electrochemical detection of adenosine and adenosine breakdown products (inosine, hypoxanthine, and xanthine; SMARTChip). Measurements of blood purine concentrations were carried out using samples from mice subjected to intra-amygdala kainic acid-induced status epilepticus and in video-electroencephalogram (EEG)-monitored adult patients with epilepsy.

RESULTS

In mice, blood purine concentrations were rapidly increased approximately two- to threefold after status epilepticus (2.32 ± .40 µmol·L^-1 [control] vs. 8.93 ± 1.03 µmol·L^-1 [after status epilepticus]), and levels correlated with seizure burden and postseizure neurodegeneration in the hippocampus. Blood purine concentrations were also elevated in patients with video-EEG-diagnosed epilepsy (2.39 ± .34 µmol·L^-1 [control, n = 13] vs. 4.35 ± .38 µmol·L^-1 [epilepsy, n = 26]).

SIGNIFICANCE

Our data provide proof of concept that the measurement of blood purine concentrations may offer a rapid, low-volume bedside test to support the diagnosis of seizures and epilepsy.

Kv1.1 potassium channel subunit deficiency alters ventricular arrhythmia susceptibility, contractility, and repolarization

Epilepsy-associated Kv1.1 voltage-gated potassium channel subunits encoded by the Kcna1 gene have traditionally been considered absent in heart, but recent studies reveal they are expressed in cardiomyocytes where they could regulate intrinsic cardiac electrophysiology. Although Kv1.1 now has a demonstrated functional role in atria, its role in the ventricles has never been investigated. In this work, electrophysiological, histological, and gene expression approaches were used to explore the consequences of Kv1.1 deficiency in the ventricles of Kcna1 knockout (KO) mice at the organ, cellular, and molecular levels to determine whether the absence of Kv1.1 leads to ventricular dysfunction that increases the risk of premature or sudden death. When subjected to intracardiac pacing, KO mice showed normal baseline susceptibility to inducible ventricular arrhythmias (VA) but resistance to VA under conditions of sympathetic challenge with isoproterenol. Echocardiography revealed cardiac contractile dysfunction manifesting as decreased ejection fraction and fractional shortening. In whole-cell patch-clamp recordings, KO ventricular cardiomyocytes exhibited action potential prolongation indicative of impaired repolarization. Imaging, histological, and transcript analyses showed no evidence of structural or channel gene expression remodeling, suggesting that the observed deficits are likely electrogenic due to Kv1.1 deficiency. Immunoblots of patient heart samples detected the presence of Kv1.1 at relatively high levels, implying that Kv1.1 contributes to human cardiac electrophysiology. Taken together, this work describes an important functional role for Kv1.1 in ventricles where its absence causes repolarization and contractility deficits but reduced susceptibility to arrhythmia under conditions of sympathetic drive.

Nocturnal events in children: When and how to evaluate

Nocturnal events of wide variety and concern are frequently reported by patients and their caregivers. To evaluate suspected abnormal events, primary care physicians must first be familiar with normal behaviors, movements and breathing patterns. Abnormal nocturnal events can then be categorized as nocturnal seizure, parasomnia, sleep-related movement disorder or sleep-related breathing disorder. Diagnoses in the above categories can be made clinically; however, it is important to know when to refer for additional evaluation. Comprehensive literature review was undertaken of nocturnal and sleep-related disorders. This guide reviews nocturnal seizures, normal and abnormal nonepileptic movements and behaviors, discusses broad indications for referral for electroencephalography (EEG) or polysomnography (PSG), and guides counseling and management for patients and their families, ultimately aiding in interpretation of both findings and prognosis. Epilepsy syndromes can result in seizures during sleep or adjacent periods of wakefulness. Parasomnias and sleep-related movement disorders tend to also occur in childhood and may be distinguished clinically. Referral to additional specialists for specific studies including EEG or PSG can be necessary, while other times a knowledgeable and vigilant clinician can contribute to a prompt diagnosis based on clinical features. Nocturnal events often can be managed with parental reassurance and watchful waiting, but treatment or evaluation may be needed. Sleep-related breathing disorders are important to recognize as they present very differently in children than in adults and early intervention can be life-saving. This review should allow both primary and subspecialty non-neurologic pediatric and adolescent health care providers to better utilize EEG and PSG as part of a larger comprehensive clinical approach, distinguishing and managing both epileptic and nonepileptic nocturnal disorders of concern while fostering communication across providers to facilitate and coordinate better holistic long-term care of pediatric and adolescent patients.

Cardiac Neuroanatomy for the Cardiac Electrophysiologist

The cardiac neuraxis is integral to cardiac physiology, and its dysregulation is implicated in cardiovascular disease. Neuromodulatory therapies are being developed that target the cardiac autonomic nervous system (ANS) to treat cardiac pathophysiology. An appreciation of the cardiac neuroanatomy is a prerequisite for development of such targeted therapies. Here, we provide a review of the current understanding of the cardiac ANS. The parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous system are composed of higher order cortical centers, brainstem, spinal cord, intrathoracic extracardiac ganglia and intrinsic cardiac ganglia. A series of interacting feedback loops mediates reflex pathways to exert control over the cardiac conduction system and contractile tissue. Further exploration of this complex regulatory system promises to yield neuroscience-based therapeutics for cardiac disease.

A case report of sinoatrial arrest caused by temporal lobe epilepsy in subclinical glioblastoma

Background

Atrial fibrillation with symptomatic bradycardia, higher grade atrioventricular block, and sinus node disease are all common indications for permanent pacemaker implantation. The most frequent causes of sinus node disease treated with pacemaker implantation involve degenerative structural changes of the sinus node; less often, extrinsic causes (such as damage due to myocardial infarction or heightened parasympathetic nervous system activity) lead to pacemaker implantation.

Case presentation

A 50-year-old patient with syncope and documented sinoatrial arrest was referred. Neurologic exams (including CT and EEG) revealed no pathologies, so a pacemaker was implanted. Postoperatively, syncope occurred again due to a focal seizure during which sinus rhythm transitioned to atrial pacing by the device. Further neurologic testing revealed focal epilepsy. Six months later, stage IV glioblastoma was diagnosed and the patient was treated surgically.

Conclusion

Intracerebral tumors should be considered in the differential diagnosis for patients with unexplained sinoatrial block, as well as in patients with repeat syncope after pacemaker implantation. Cranial MRI could aid the diagnostic workup of such cases.

Audiogenic seizure as a model of sudden death in epilepsy: A comparative study between four inbred mouse strains from early life to adulthood

OBJECTIVE

Mouse models of sudden unexpected death in epileptic patients (SUDEP) using audiogenic seizures (AGS) are valuable because death can occur following a sound-induced seizure in the absence of any pharmacologic or electric component. However, only a few strains of mice are AGS prone, and the vast majority of studies involve DBA/2 or DBA/1 inbred strains. With the goal of characterizing the variation of AGS susceptibility with age, and of offering a larger panel of mice available for AGS studies, we performed a comparative study of the variability in AGS responses.

METHODS

The variation of AGS with age was determined in two classically used inbred strains of mice, DBA/2 and DBA/1, and two additional strains, BALB/c and 129/SvTer. As AGS-stimulated tonic seizures can be lethal or nonlethal, even in the same inbred strain, in a second experiment, we addressed whether there is an innate capacity to reproduce the same response after a tonic AGS, referred to as "determinism," in the DBA/2J, DBA/1J, and 129/SvTer mouse strains.

RESULTS

Results show that the 129/SvTer mouse is a more versatile model of SUDEP due to its wider age range of susceptibility compared to the DBA/2J and DBA/1J mouse strains. In addition, we show that determinism is not consistently evident in DBA/2J and 129/SvTer strains after AGS. Hence, one cannot be certain that a lethal AGS will always be lethal in successive testing after resuscitation and vice versa in these two mouse strains.

SIGNIFICANCE

These studies highlight the phenotypic variability of AGS in different mouse strains, show the value of an additional mouse strain, 129/SvTer, for studies using AGS, and thus provide valuable information for future studies of AGS and SUDEP.

Systematic Review of the Genetics of Sudden Unexpected Death in Epilepsy: Potential Overlap With Sudden Cardiac Death and Arrhythmia-Related Genes

Background Sudden unexpected death in epilepsy (SUDEP) is the leading cause of epilepsy-related death. SUDEP shares many features with sudden cardiac death and sudden unexplained death in the young and may have a similar genetic contribution. We aim to systematically review the literature on the genetics of SUDEP. Methods and Results PubMed, MEDLINE Epub Ahead of Print, Ovid Medline In-Process & Other Non-Indexed Citations, MEDLINE, EMBASE, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, and Scopus were searched through April 4, 2017. English language human studies analyzing SUDEP for known sudden death, ion channel and arrhythmia-related pathogenic variants, novel variant discovery, and copy number variant analyses were included. Aggregate descriptive statistics were generated; data were insufficient for meta-analysis. A total of 8 studies with 161 unique individuals were included; mean was age 29.0 (±SD 14.2) years; 61% males; ECG data were reported in 7.5% of cases; 50.7% were found prone and 58% of deaths were nocturnal. Cause included all types of epilepsy. Antemortem diagnosis of Dravet syndrome and autism (with duplication of chromosome 15) was associated with 11% and 9% of cases. The most frequently detected known pathogenic variants at postmortem were in Na+ and K+ ion channel subunits, as were novel potentially pathogenic variants (11%). Overall, the majority of variants were of unknown significance. Analysis of copy number variant was insignificant. Conclusions SUDEP case adjudication and evaluation remains limited largely because of crucial missing data such as ECGs. The most frequent pathogenic/likely pathogenic variants identified by molecular autopsy are in ion channel or arrhythmia-related genes, with an ≈11% discovery rate. Comprehensive postmortem examination should include examination of the heart and brain by specialized pathologists and blood storage.

Biochemical findings in sudden unexpected death in epilepsy: Hospital based case-control study

PURPOSE

A review study on the biochemistry of epilepsy showed that in epileptic patients, serum glucose and cholesterol concentrations are low, sodium is unaffected, potassium increases, glucose is high and mild hypocalcemia. We have conducted a biochemical study on sudden unexpected death in epilepsy (SUDEP) cases in an attempt to establish the characteristic biochemical values to diagnose these deaths.

METHODS

This was a hospital based case-control study done at All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi for one year. Twenty SUDEP cases and 20 age- and sex-matched controls were included in the study. Femoral blood, cerebrospinal fluid, vitreous humor, and pericardial fluid were biochemically analyzed for sodium, potassium, calcium, glucose, N-acetyl- cysteine activated creatine kinase (CK-NAC) and isoenzyme CK-MB.

RESULT

Serum sodium, CK-MB and CK-NAC level was found significantly increased and potassium level was found decreased in SUDEP cases in comparison to non-epileptic deaths. Likewise, in CSF, sodium and CK-NAC was found increased and potassium level was found decreased in SUDEP cases. In vitreous humor, sodium and CK-MB level was found increased and potassium level was found decreased in SUDEP cases in comparison to non-epileptic deaths. In pericardial fluid, sodium, CK-NAC and CK-MB level was found increased and potassium level was found decreased in SUDEP cases in comparison to non-epileptic deaths.

CONCLUSION

It concludes that high sodium level and low potassium level could be associated with SUDEP. However, this is a small size study, a larger study is needed to verify the findings. Furthermore, it is difficult to conclude whether these findings are exclusive to SUDEP.

Scurrying to Understand Sudden Expected Death in Epilepsy: Insights From Animal Models

Sudden unexpected death in epilepsy (SUDEP) is the leading cause of death in patients with refractory epilepsy, accounting for up to 17% of deaths in patients with epilepsy. The pathophysiology of SUDEP has remained unclear, largely because it is unpredictable and commonly unwitnessed. This poses a great challenge to studies in patients. Recently, there has been an increase in animal studies to try to better understand the pathophysiology of SUDEP. In this current review, we focus on developments through seizure-induced death models and the preventative strategies they may reveal.

SUDEP in the North American SUDEP Registry: The full spectrum of epilepsies

Objective

To obtain medical records, family interviews, and death-related reports of sudden unexpected death in epilepsy (SUDEP) cases to better understand SUDEP.

Methods

All cases referred to the North American SUDEP Registry (NASR) between October 2011 and June 2018 were reviewed; cause of death was determined by consensus review. Available medical records, death scene investigation reports, autopsy reports, and next-of-kin interviews were reviewed for all cases of SUDEP. Seizure type, EEG, MRI, and SUDEP classification were adjudicated by 2 epileptologists.

Results

There were 237 definite and probable cases of SUDEP among 530 NASR participants. SUDEP decedents had a median age of 26 (range 1–70) years at death, and 38% were female. In 143 with sufficient information, 40% had generalized and 60% had focal epilepsy. SUDEP affected the full spectrum of epilepsies, from benign epilepsy with centrotemporal spikes (n = 3, 1%) to intractable epileptic encephalopathies (n = 27, 11%). Most (93%) SUDEPs were unwitnessed; 70% occurred during apparent sleep; and 69% of patients were prone. Only 37% of cases of SUDEP took their last dose of antiseizure medications (ASMs). Reported lifetime generalized tonic-clonic seizures (GTCS) were <10 in 33% and 0 in 4%.

Conclusions

NASR participants commonly have clinical features that have been previously been associated with SUDEP risk such as young adult age, ASM nonadherence, and frequent GTCS. However, a sizeable minority of SUDEP occurred in patients thought to be treatment responsive or to have benign epilepsies. These results emphasize the importance of SUDEP education across the spectrum of epilepsy severities. We aim to make NASR data and biospecimens available for researchers to advance SUDEP understanding and prevention.

Interictal electrocardiographic alternations in patients with drug-resistant epilepsy

PURPOSE

Previous studies suggested the possible role of autonomic dysfunction in sudden unexpected death in epilepsy (SUDEP). The aim of this study is to assess the interictal ECG alternations especially heart rate variability (HRV), as a marker of autonomic dysfunction, in patients with drug-resistant epilepsy and determine the effect of epilepsy type and duration, seizure frequency and anti-epileptic drugs (AEDs) on ECG findings.

METHODS

In this comparative cross-sectional study, the interictal ECG parameters of 64 consecutive patients with drug-resistant epilepsy and the same number of age and sex-matched controls were analyzed. Epilepsy type and duration, seizure frequency, MRI findings and patients' anti-convulsive medications were determined.

RESULTS

Our study showed significant longer mean PR interval, shorter mean QRS duration, shorter mean QTc interval and longer corrected QT interval dispersion (QTcd) in patients with epilepsy compared to healthy subjects. The analysis of RR intervals revealed reduced RR standard deviation (SDNN), which is a marker of reduced HRV. A positive linear correlation was found between QRS duration and epilepsy duration. No significant correlation was found between taking a certain kind of AED, and ECG alternations, except for mild QTcd prolongation in patients taking valproate.

CONCLUSION

Our study showed clinically important alternations in interictal ECG parameters in patients with drug-resistant epilepsy which could result in sudden cardiac death.

Identifying and mitigating Sudden Unexpected Death in Epilepsy (SUDEP) risk factors

INTRODUCTION

Sudden Unexpected Death in Epilepsy (SUDEP) is a significant cause of death for people with chronic epilepsy. Good practice guidance in the UK and the USA expect SUDEP to be discussed with the individual. The event rarity, methodological variance and lack of robust research into the pathological mechanisms, associated risk factors, and management strategies have created a challenge on how and what to discuss. There are some significant associations which allows for risk assessment and mitigation. Areas covered: The current understanding of static and modifiable risk factors for SUDEP and how to manage these more effectively are reviewed. Longitudinal risk may be assessed using standardised risk assessment tools which help in communicating risk. Technological advancement allows measurement of physiological parameters associated with seizures and risk of SUDEP using small wearable devices. Further evidence is needed to demonstrate such technologies are efficacious and safe. Expert commentary: Risk reduction should be an important part of epilepsy management and we suggest a Gold Standard of Care which healthcare professionals and services should aim for when approaching SUDEP risk management. A Minimum Standard of Care is also proposed that is practical to implement, that all people with epilepsy should expect to receive.

Severe peri-ictal respiratory dysfunction is common in Dravet syndrome

Dravet syndrome (DS) is a severe childhood-onset epilepsy commonly due to mutations of the sodium channel gene SCN1A. Patients with DS have a high risk of sudden unexplained death in epilepsy (SUDEP), widely believed to be due to cardiac mechanisms. Here we show that patients with DS commonly have peri-ictal respiratory dysfunction. One patient had severe and prolonged postictal hypoventilation during video EEG monitoring and died later of SUDEP. Mice with an Scn1aR1407X/+ loss-of-function mutation were monitored and died after spontaneous and heat-induced seizures due to central apnea followed by progressive bradycardia. Death could be prevented with mechanical ventilation after seizures were induced by hyperthermia or maximal electroshock. Muscarinic receptor antagonists did not prevent bradycardia or death when given at doses selective for peripheral parasympathetic blockade, whereas apnea, bradycardia, and death were prevented by the same drugs given at doses high enough to cross the blood-brain barrier. When given via intracerebroventricular infusion at a very low dose, a muscarinic receptor antagonist prevented apnea, bradycardia, and death. We conclude that SUDEP in patients with DS can result from primary central apnea, which can cause bradycardia, presumably via a direct effect of hypoxemia on cardiac muscle.

Distinct behavioral and epileptic phenotype differences in 129/P mice compared to C57BL/6 mice subject to intraamygdala kainic acid-induced status epilepticus

Animal models of status epilepticus are important tools to understand the pathogenesis of epileptic brain injury and evaluate potential seizure-suppressive, neuroprotective, and antiepileptogenic treatments. Focal elicitation of status epilepticus by intraamygdala kainic acid in mice produces unilateral hippocampal damage and the emergence of spontaneous recurrent seizures after a short latent period. The model has been characterized in C57BL/6, BALB/c, and SJL mice where strain-specific differences were found in the extent of hippocampal damage. 129/P mice are a common background strain for genetic models and may display unique characteristics in this model. We therefore compared responses to intraamygdala kainic acid between 129/P and C57BL/6 mice. Racine scale-scored convulsive behavior during status epilepticus was substantially lower in 129/P mice compared with that in C57BL/6 mice. Analysis of surface-recorded electroencephalogram (EEG) showed differences between strains in several frequency bands; EEG total power was greater during ictal episodes while duration of seizures was slightly shorter in 129/P mice. Histological analysis revealed similar hippocampal injury between strains, with neuronal death mainly confined to the ipsilateral CA3 subfield. Expression of genes associated with gliosis and neuroinflammatory responses was also similar between strains after seizures. Video-EEG telemetry recordings showed that 129/P mice first display spontaneous seizures within a few days of status epilepticus similar to C57BL/6 mice. However, high mortality in 129/P mice prevented a quantitative comparison of the epileptic seizure phenotypes between strains. This study defined behavioral, EEG, and histopathologic features of this mouse strain in a model increasingly useful for the study of the genetic contribution to acquired epilepsy. Intraamygdala kainic acid in 129/P mice could serve as a model of nonconvulsive status epilepticus, but long-term assessments will require model adjustment to mitigate the severity of the emergent epileptic phenotype.

Unexpected death in palliative care: what to expect when you are not expecting

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Death is a certainty in life. Yet, the timing of death is often uncertain. When death occurs suddenly and earlier than anticipated, it is considered as an unexpected death. In this article, we shall discuss when is death expected and unexpected, and review the frequency, impact, causes, and approach to unexpected death in the palliative care setting.

RECENT FINDINGS

Even in the palliative care setting in which death is relatively common, up to 5% of deaths in hospice and 10% of deaths in palliative care units were considered to be unexpected. Unexpected death has significant impact on care, including unrealized dreams and unfinished business among patients, a sense of uneasiness and complicated bereavement among caregivers, and uncertainty in decision making among healthcare providers. Clinicians may minimize the impact of unexpected events by improving their accuracy of prognostication, communicating the uncertainty with patients and families, and helping them to expect the unexpected by actively planning ahead. Furthermore, because of the emotional impact of unexpected death on bereaved caregivers, clinicians should provide close monitoring and offer prompt treatment for complicated grief.

SUMMARY

Further research is needed to understand how we can better predict and address unexpected events.

Sudden cardiac death in epilepsy disappoints, but epileptologists keep faith

ABSTRACT Sudden unexpected death in epilepsy (SUDEP) is the most common cause of death in people with intractable epilepsy. Probably, optimization of seizure control will prevent some of these deaths. Briefly, we integrated in this paper some data about the epidemiology, risk factors, etiology, and preventative measures in the management of SUDEP.

Long-term follow-up and sudden unexpected death in Gaucher disease type 3 in Egypt

Objective:

To describe the long-term follow-up and distinct phenotype of a large cohort of patients with Gaucher disease type 3 on enzyme replacement therapy (ERT) in Egypt.

Methods:

A prospective cohort study of 78 patients on ERT who were followed for up to 9 years with yearly evaluations that included EEG and cognitive testing.

Results:

Of the patients, 73% were homozygous for the L444P GBA1 mutation; all but 7 were neurologically symptomatic. Supranuclear gaze palsy with variable but stable cognitive function was present in 91% of patients. Convergent strabismus and bulbar dysfunction were noted in 22% and 37%, respectively. Features of oppositional defiant disorder were present in 54% of patients. Twenty-three patients (30%) developed seizures while on ERT for 1–9 years. Of those, 12 patients (15%) died suddenly and unexpectedly at a mean age of 6.7 ± 5.0 years (range 1.5–18). Sudden death was usually associated with a seizure disorder or a terminal seizure, but 7 of 12 patients had a preceding normal EEG. An additional 11% had background slowing or epileptogenic activity on EEG without clinical seizures. There were 3 familial cases of sudden unexpected death.

Conclusions:

Despite having the most common GBA1 genotype known to be associated with neuronopathic Gaucher disease, patients with Gaucher disease type 3 in Egypt have a phenotype and a clinical outcome on ERT that are very different from those observed in other populations. Identifying putative modifying genes of this ethnic group is likely to lead to better therapy for neuronopathic Gaucher disease generally.

Deep Brain Stimulation of the Ventral Pallidum Attenuates Epileptiform Activity and Seizing Behavior in Pilocarpine-Treated Rats

BACKGROUND

Brain stimulation is effective for people with intractable epilepsy. However, modulating neural targets that provide greater efficacy to more individuals is still needed.

OBJECTIVE/HYPOTHESIS

We investigate whether bilateral deep brain stimulation of the ventral pallidum (VP-DBS) has potent seizure control in pilocarpine-treated rats.

METHODS

VP-DBS (50 Hz) was applied prior to generalized forebrain seizures or after generalized brainstem seizures manifested. Behavioral seizures were assessed using a modified Racine scale. In vitro and in vivo electrophysiological techniques were employed to identify how VP-DBS affects proximal and distal neuronal activity. The open field test was used to see if acute and chronic VP-DBS affected gross motor function or arousal state. Parametric and non-parametric statistics with post-hoc analysis were performed.

RESULTS

VP-DBS prior to pilocarpine prevented behavioral forebrain and brainstem seizures in most animals (n = 15). VP-DBS after brainstem seizures emerged prevented or reduced the appearance of subsequent behavioral brainstem seizures (n = 11). VP-DBS attenuated epileptiform activity in the hippocampus (n = 5), but not in the primary somatosensory cortex (S1) (n = 4) in vivo. Electrical stimulation in the VP increased VP GABAergic neuronal firing activity from 3.1 ± 1.4 Hz to 7.6 ± 1.7 Hz (n = 8) in vitro and reduced substantia nigra reticulata and superior colliculus neuronal spiking activity from 25.4 ± 3.3 Hz to 18.2 ± 1.4 Hz (n = 6) and 18.2 ± 1.4 Hz to 11.0 ± 1.1 Hz (n = 18), respectively, in vivo.

CONCLUSION

VP-DBS can be a novel and potent therapeutic approach for individuals with intractable epilepsy.