Is cerebral palsy preventable?

Forensic Obstetrics and Clinical Risk Factors

Forensic obstetrics attracts much attention from forensic experts and the public owing to the professional, legal, public health, and not inconsiderable social-emotional aspects and directly correlates with maternal, fetoneonatal, and iatrogenic risk factors. Modern obstetrics and fetomaternal medicine must not be quantified and qualified based only on perinatal disease but also according to current obstetric problems that burden forensic obstetrics. Therefore, high-risk obstetrics as a significant medico-legal problem should be viewed from the point of view of the entire perinatal period with possible long-term consequences, hence the monitoring of complete perinatal and infant morbidity is of immediate importance for quality control and risk control in the profession. The task of forensic obstetrics is to assess the impact of risk factors on the occurrence of an adverse event and to assess whether it is an obstetric complication or obstetric malpractice. Acknowledging the mentioned facts is the only way we will develop high obstetric awareness, and we and pregnant women, birth attendants, midwives and patients, fetuses, and newborns will have professional safety with imminent but controlled obstetric risk and controlled expected complications. On the other hand, the fact that the statistics of perinatal (obstetrical) malpractice globally is not abating requires a change in obstetrical philosophy, especially the unreasonable epidemic increase of cesarean sections with a significant percentage of cesarean sections without medical indication and complications. It is necessary to introduce and maintain solid professionalism and bioethical norms in obstetrics with constant training of skills, which is emphasized by numerous authors and with which we fully agree. Forensic obstetrics is based on the principles of good clinical practice, professional guidelines of modern obstetrics, and ethical and deontological principles. It clearly shows the perfection and imperfection of biological systems that we can and cannot influence. However, we must act according to the rules of the clinical profession, deontological rules, and health laws to reduce clinical risk to the smallest possible extent. Attention should certainly be focused on reducing the disproportion between iatrogenic and maternal-fetoneonatal risk factors, which is the most common reason for litigation today.

Exposure to Paracetamol in Early Pregnancy and the Risk of Developing Cerebral Palsy: A Case-Control Study Using Serum Samples

OBJECTIVE

To investigate whether maternal paracetamol use in early pregnancy is associated with cerebral palsy (CP) in offspring.

STUDY DESIGN

We conducted a registry and biobank-based case-control study with mother-child pairs. We identified CP cases (n = 322) born between 1995 and 2014 from a nationwide CP-registry. Randomly selected controls (n = 343) and extra preterm controls (n = 258) were obtained from a birth registry. For each mother, a single serum sample from early pregnancy (gestation weeks 10-14) was retrieved from a biobank and analyzed for serum concentrations of paracetamol, categorized into unexposed (<1 ng/ml), mildly exposed (1-100 ng/ml), and highly exposed (>100 ng/ml), and in quartiles. Analyses were performed using logistic regression and adjusted for potential confounders. Separate analyses were conducted including only those children born preterm and only those born term.

RESULTS

Of the 923 participants, 36.8% were unexposed, 53.2% mildly exposed, and 10% highly exposed to paracetamol. Overall, prenatal exposure to paracetamol was not associated with CP. Sensitivity and subgroup analyses showed no clear associations between paracetamol and CP across strata of term/preterm birth as well as subtypes of CP.

CONCLUSIONS

The present study does not support an association between intrauterine exposure to paracetamol in early pregnancy and the risk of CP. However, it is important to stress that the exposure estimate is based on a single serum sample.

Distinct manifestations and potential mechanisms of seizures due to cortical versus white matter injury in children

PURPOSE

To study seizure manifestations and outcomes in children with cortical versus white matter injury, differences potentially explaining variability of epilepsy in children with cerebral palsy.

METHODS

In this population-based retrospective cohort study, MRIs of children with cerebral palsy due to ischemia or haemorrhage were classified according to presence or absence of cortical injury. MRI findings were then correlated with history of neonatal seizures, seizures during childhood, epilepsy syndromes, and seizure outcomes.

RESULTS

Of 256 children studied, neonatal seizures occurred in 57 and seizures during childhood occurred in 93. Children with neonatal seizures were more likely to develop seizures during childhood, mostly those with cortical injury. Cortical injury was more strongly associated with (1) developing seizures during childhood, (2) more severe epilepsy syndromes (infantile spasms syndrome, focal epilepsy, Lennox-Gastaut syndrome), and (3) less likelihood of reaching > 2 years without seizures at last follow-up, compared to children without cortical injury. Children without cortical injury, mainly those with white matter injury, were less likely to develop neonatal seizures and seizures during childhood, and when they did, epilepsy syndromes were more commonly febrile seizures and self-limited focal epilepsies of childhood, with most achieving > 2 years without seizures at last follow-up. The presence of cortical injury also influenced seizure occurrence, severity, and outcome within the different predominant injury patterns of the MRI Classification System in cerebral palsy, most notably white matter injury.

CONCLUSIONS

Epileptogenesis is understood with cortical injury but not well with white matter injury, the latter potentially related to altered postnatal white matter development or myelination leading to apoptosis, abnormal synaptogenesis or altered thalamic connectivity of cortical neurons. These findings, and the potential mechanisms discussed, likely explain the variability of epilepsy in children with cerebral palsy and epilepsy following early-life brain injury in general.

Inhibiting NLRP3 inflammasome signaling pathway promotes neurological recovery following hypoxic-ischemic brain damage by increasing p97-mediated surface GluA1-containing AMPA receptors

BACKGROUND

The nucleotide-binding oligomeric domain (NOD)-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome is believed to be a key mediator of neuroinflammation and subsequent secondary brain injury induced by ischemic stroke. However, the role and underlying mechanism of the NLRP3 inflammasome in neonates with hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (HIE) are still unclear.

METHODS

The protein expressions of the NLRP3 inflammasome including NLRP3, cysteinyl aspartate specific proteinase-1 (caspase-1) and interleukin-1β (IL-1β), the α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole-propionicacid receptor (AMPAR) subunit, and the ATPase valosin-containing protein (VCP/p97), were determined by Western blotting. The interaction between p97 and AMPA glutamate receptor 1 (GluA1) was determined by co-immunoprecipitation. The histopathological level of hypoxic-ischemic brain damage (HIBD) was determined by triphenyltetrazolium chloride (TTC) staining. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and Western blotting were used to confirm the genotype of the knockout mice. Motor functions, including myodynamia and coordination, were evaluated by using grasping and rotarod tests. Hippocampus-dependent spatial cognitive function was measured by using the Morris-water maze (MWM).

RESULTS

We reported that the NLRP3 inflammasome signaling pathway, such as NLRP3, caspase-1 and IL-1β, was activated in rats with HIBD and oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD)-treated cultured primary neurons. Further studies showed that the protein level of the AMPAR GluA1 subunit on the hippocampal postsynaptic membrane was significantly decreased in rats with HIBD, and it could be restored to control levels after treatment with the specific caspase-1 inhibitor AC-YVAD-CMK. Similarly, in vitro studies showed that OGD reduced GluA1 protein levels on the plasma membrane in cultured primary neurons, whereas AC-YVAD-CMK treatment restored this reduction. Importantly, we showed that OGD treatment obviously enhanced the interaction between p97 and GluA1, while AC-YVAD-CMK treatment promoted the dissociation of p97 from the GluA1 complex and consequently facilitated the localization of GluA1 on the plasma membrane of cultured primary neurons. Finally, we reported that the deficits in motor function, learning and memory in animals with HIBD, were ameliorated by pharmacological intervention or genetic ablation of caspase-1.

CONCLUSION

Inhibiting the NLRP3 inflammasome signaling pathway promotes neurological recovery in animals with HIBD by increasing p97-mediated surface GluA1 expression, thereby providing new insight into HIE therapy.

Epilepsy syndromes in cerebral palsy: varied, evolving and mostly self-limited

Seizures occur in approximately one-third of children with cerebral palsy. This study aimed to determine epilepsy syndromes in children with seizures and cerebral palsy due to vascular injury, anticipating that this would inform treatment and prognosis. We studied a population-based cohort of children with cerebral palsy due to prenatal or perinatal vascular injuries, born 1999-2006. Each child's MRI was reviewed to characterize patterns of grey and white matter injury. Children with syndromic or likely genetic causes of cerebral palsy were excluded, given their inherent association with epilepsy and our aim to study a homogeneous cohort of classical cerebral palsy. Chart review, parent interview and EEGs were used to determine epilepsy syndromes and seizure outcomes. Of 256 children, 93 (36%) had one or more febrile or afebrile seizures beyond the neonatal period and 87 (34%) had epilepsy. Children with seizures were more likely to have had neonatal seizures, have spastic quadriplegic cerebral palsy and function within Gross Motor Function Classification System level IV or V. Fifty-six (60%) children with seizures had electroclinical features of a self-limited focal epilepsy of childhood; we diagnosed these children with a self-limited focal epilepsy-variant given the current International League Against Epilepsy classification precludes a diagnosis of self-limited focal epilepsy in children with a brain lesion. Other epilepsy syndromes were focal epilepsy-not otherwise specified in 28, infantile spasms syndrome in 11, Lennox-Gastaut syndrome in three, genetic generalized epilepsies in two and febrile seizures in nine. No epilepsy syndrome could be assigned in seven children with no EEG. Twenty-one changed syndrome classification during childhood. Self-limited focal epilepsy-variant usually manifested with a mix of autonomic and brachio-facial motor features, and occipital and/or centro-temporal spikes on EEG. Of those with self-limited focal epilepsy-variant, 42/56 (75%) had not had a seizure for >2 years. Favourable seizure outcomes were also seen in some children with infantile spasms syndrome and focal epilepsy-not otherwise specified. Of the 93 children with seizures, at last follow-up (mean age 15 years), 61/91 (67%) had not had a seizure in >2 years. Children with cerebral palsy and seizures can be assigned specific epilepsy syndrome diagnoses typically reserved for normally developing children, those syndromes commonly being age-dependent and self-limited. Compared to typically developing children with epilepsy, self-limited focal epilepsy-variant occurs much more commonly in children with cerebral palsy and epilepsy. These findings have important implications for treatment and prognosis of epilepsy in cerebral palsy, and research into pathogenesis of self-limited focal epilepsy.

Protective Effects of Interleukin-1 Blockade on Group B Streptococcus-Induced Chorioamnionitis and Subsequent Neurobehavioral Impairments of the Offspring

Group B Streptococcus (GBS) is one of the most common bacteria isolated in human chorioamnionitis. Placental infection due to GBS is a major risk factor for fetal organ injuries, preterm birth, perinatal morbidity and mortality, and life-long multiorgan morbidities. Preclinical and clinical studies have shown that GBS-induced infection drives polymorphonuclear (PMN) cell infiltration within the placenta, the hallmark of human chorioamnionitis. In preclinical and clinical studies, the upregulation of interleukin(IL)-1β in the placenta and maternal/fetal blood was associated with a high risk of neurodevelopmental impairments in the progeny. We hypothesized that targeted IL-1 blockade administered to the dam alleviates GBS-induced chorioamnionitis and the downstream fetal inflammatory response syndrome (FIRS). IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1Ra) improved the gestational weight gain of GBS-infected dams and did not worsen the infectious manifestations. IL-1Ra reduced the IL-1β titer in the maternal sera of GBS-infected dams. IL-1Ra decreased the levels of IL-1β, IL-6, chemokine (C-X-C motif) ligand 1 (CXCL1), and polymorphonuclear (PMN) infiltration in GBS-infected placenta. IL-1Ra treatment reduced the IL-1β titer in the fetal sera of GBS-exposed fetuses. IL-1 blockade also alleviated GBS-induced FIRS and subsequent neurobehavioral impairments of the offspring without worsening the outcome of GBS infection. Altogether, these results showed that IL-1 plays a key role in the physiopathology of live GBS-induced chorioamnionitis and consequent neurobehavioral impairments.

Low birth weight as a predictor of adverse health outcomes during adulthood in twins: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Low birth weight might affect adverse health outcomes during a lifetime. Our study analyzes the association between low birth weight and negative health outcomes during adulthood in twin populations.

METHODS

Searches were conducted using databases inclusive of MEDLINE, CINAHL, Web of Science, and EBSCO. Observational studies on twins with low birth weight and adverse health outcomes during adulthood were included. Two reviewers independently screened the papers, and a third reviewer resolved the conflicts between the two reviewers. Following abstract and title screening, full-texts were screened to obtain eligibility. Eligible full-text articles were then assessed for quality using a modified Downs and Black checklist. Studies with a score within one standard deviation of the mean were included in the analysis. A fixed-effect model was used for analysis.

RESULTS

3987 studies were screened describing low birth weight as a risk factor for adverse health outcomes during adulthood for all twelve-body systems (circulatory, digestive, endocrine, lymphatic, muscular, nervous, reproductive, respiratory, skeletal, urinary, and integumentary systems). One hundred fourteen articles made it through full-text screening, and 14 of those articles were assessed for quality. Five papers were selected to perform two meta-analyses for two outcomes: asthma and cerebral palsy. For asthma, the meta-analyses of three studies suggested a higher odds of low birth weight twins developing asthma (OR 1.33, 95% CI 1.24-1.44, I2 = 77%). Meta-analysis for cerebral palsy included two studies and suggested a 4.88 times higher odds of low birth weight twins developing cerebral palsy compared to normal birth weight twins (OR 4.88, 95% CI 2.34-10.19, I2 = 79%). We could not find enough studies for other adverse health outcomes to pool data for a Forest plot.

CONCLUSIONS

The odds of low birth weight were found to be high in both asthma and cerebral palsy. There are not enough studies of similar nature (study types, similar body systems) to ensure a meaningful meta-analysis. We recommend that future research considers following up on twins to obtain data about adverse health outcomes during their adult lives.

Experimental cerebral palsy causes microstructural brain damage in areas associated to motor deficits but no spatial memory impairments in the developing rat

INTRODUCTION

Cerebral palsy (CP) is the major cause of motor and cognitive impairments during childhood. CP can result from direct or indirect structural injury to the developing brain. In this study, we aimed to describe brain damage and behavioural alterations during early adult life in a CP model using the combination of maternal inflammation, perinatal anoxia and postnatal sensorimotor restriction.

METHODS

Pregnant Wistar rats were injected intraperitoneally with 200 µg/kg LPS at embryonic days E18 and E19. Between 3 and 6 h after birth (postnatal day 0 - PND0), pups of both sexes were exposed to anoxia for 20 min. From postnatal day 2 to 21, hindlimbs of animals were immobilized for 16 h daily during their active phase. From PND40, locomotor and cognitive tests were performed using Rota-Rod, Ladder Walking and Morris water Maze. Ex-vivo MRI Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI) and Neurite Orientation Dispersion and Density Imaging (NODDI) were used to assess macro and microstructural damage and brain volume alterations induced by the model. Myelination and expression of neuronal, astroglial and microglial markers, as well as apoptotic cell death were evaluated by immunofluorescence.

RESULTS

CP animals showed decreased body weight, deficits in gross (rota-rod) and fine (ladder walking) motor tasks compared to Controls. No cognitive impairments were observed. Ex-vivo MRI showed decreased brain volumes and impaired microstructure in the cingulate gyrus and sensory cortex in CP brains. Histological analysis showed increased cell death, astrocytic reactivity and decreased thickness of the corpus callosum and altered myelination in CP animals. Hindlimb primary motor cortex analysis showed increased apoptosis in CP animals. Despite the increase in NeuN and GFAP, no differences between groups were observed as well as no co-localization with the apoptotic marker. However, an increase in Iba-1+ microglia with co-localization to cleaved caspase 3 was observed.

CONCLUSION

Our results suggest that experimental CP induces long-term brain microstructural alterations in myelinated structures, cell death in the hindlimb primary motor cortex and locomotor impairments. Such new evidence of brain damage could help to better understand CP pathophysiological mechanisms and guide further research for neuroprotective and neurorehabilitative strategies for CP patients.

Continuing decline in the prevalence of cerebral palsy in Denmark for birth years 2008-2013

AIM

To quantify and analyse the prevalence and clinical features of cerebral palsy (CP) in Denmark for birth years 2008-2013 and compare results with previous periods.

METHOD

A nationwide register-based study covering all children with a confirmed diagnosis of CP born in Denmark. Information about CP subtype, aetiology and severity was collected from the Cerebral Palsy Follow-up Program and supplemented from medical files. Data from the Danish Medical Birth Register was included, and the results were compared to previous data from the Danish National Cerebral Palsy Register. Prevalence per 1000 live births and proportions were analysed using the Cochran-Armitage test for trend.

RESULTS

The period covered 368,618 live births and 636 children with CP, making the overall prevalence for the period 1.73 per 1000 live births. This was significantly lower than the prevalence of 1.99 for the previous period 1999-2007 (p = 0.004). The decline in prevalence between the two periods was mainly due to a decrease in children with bilateral spastic and dyskinetic CP born after 37 gestational weeks. The decline in prevalence was accompanied by a smaller proportion of children with associated impairment.

CONCLUSION

We found a decrease in prevalence and severity in CP among Danish children. The decline was most pronounced in children born after 37 gestational weeks with severe subtypes of CP. National guidelines that recommend induction of labour before the completion of week 42 and therapeutic hypothermia for term neonates with hypoxic-ischaemic encephalopathy, may have contributed to the decline.

Treatment of Disorders of Tone and Other Considerations in Pediatric Movement Disorders

Pediatric movement disorders (PMDs) consist of a heterogeneous group of signs and symptoms caused by numerous neurological diseases. Different neurological disorders in children also share overlapping movement disorders making a diagnosis of the underlying cause of the movement disorder challenging. The similarity of the symptoms across multiple disease types suggests that there may be a final common motor pathway causing the overlapping movement disorders. There are numerous disorders in children associated with disturbances in tone and involuntary movements. This chapter will focus primarily on those disorders that involve abnormalities of tone and other important considerations of pediatric movement disorders. This chapter will address rating scales and goals for treatment and will include a review of symptomatic treatment and, where possible, the treatment of the underlying disease processes. The chapter will review representative disorders, including an inborn error of metabolism, an autoimmune disorder, and a group of neurodegenerative disorders. These examples demonstrate how the disorder's underlying pathophysiology results in a specific approach to the underlying disease and the associated conditions of tone and involuntary movements. Finally, the multiple treatment options for cerebral palsy and considerations of cerebral palsy mimics will be discussed.

Advances in cerebral palsy biomarkers

Cerebral palsy (CP), defined as a group of nonprogressive disorders of movement and posture, is the most common cause of severe neurodisability in children. The prevalence of CP is the same across the globe, affecting approximately 17 million people worldwide. Cerebral Palsy is an umbrella term used to describe the disease due to its inherent heterogeneity. For instance, CP has multiple (1) causes; (2) clinical types; (3) patterns of neuropathology on brain imaging and (4) it's associated with several developmental pathologies such as intellectual disability, autism, epilepsy, and visual impairment. Understanding its physiopathology is crucial to developing protective strategies. Despite its importance, there is still insufficient progress in the areas of CP prediction, early diagnosis, treatment, and prevention. Herein we describe the current risk factors and biomarkers used for the diagnosis and prediction of CP. With the advancement in biomarker discovery, we predict that our understanding of the etiopathophysiology of CP will also increase, lending to more opportunities for developing novel treatments and prognosis.

Animal models of developmental motor disorders: parallels to human motor dysfunction in cerebral palsy

Cerebral palsy (CP) is the most common motor disability in children. Much of the previous research on CP has focused on reducing the severity of brain injuries, whereas very few researchers have investigated the cause and amelioration of motor symptoms. This research focus has had an impact on the choice of animal models. Many of the commonly used animal models do not display a prominent CP-like motor phenotype. In general, rodent models show anatomically severe injuries in the central nervous system (CNS) in response to insults associated with CP, including hypoxia, ischemia, and neuroinflammation. Unfortunately, most rodent models do not display a prominent motor phenotype that includes the hallmarks of spasticity (muscle stiffness and hyperreflexia) and weakness. To study motor dysfunction related to developmental injuries, a larger animal model is needed, such as rabbit, pig, or nonhuman primate. In this work, we describe and compare various animal models of CP and their potential for translation to the human condition.

Neurodevelopmental Follow-up of Preterm Infants: What Is New?

There is increasing evidence of ongoing changes occurring in short-term and long-term motor and language outcomes in former premature infants. As rates of moderate to severe cerebral palsy (CP) have decreased, there has been increased awareness of the impact of mild CP and of developmental coordination disorder on the preterm population. Language delays and disorders continue to be among the most common outcomes. In conjunction with medical morbidities, there is increased awareness of the negative impact of family psycho-socioeconomic adversities on preterm outcomes and of the importance of intervention for these adversities beginning in the neonatal ICU.

Antenatal and intrapartum interventions for preventing cerebral palsy: an overview of Cochrane systematic reviews

BACKGROUND

Cerebral palsy is an umbrella term encompassing disorders of movement and posture, attributed to non-progressive disturbances occurring in the developing fetal or infant brain. As there are diverse risk factors and causes, no one strategy will prevent all cerebral palsy. Therefore, there is a need to systematically consider all potentially relevant interventions for their contribution to prevention.

OBJECTIVES

To summarise the evidence from Cochrane reviews regarding the effects of antenatal and intrapartum interventions for preventing cerebral palsy.

METHODS

We searched the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews on 7 August 2016, for reviews of antenatal or intrapartum interventions reporting on cerebral palsy. Two authors assessed reviews for inclusion, extracted data, assessed review quality, using AMSTAR and ROBIS, and quality of the evidence, using the GRADE approach. We organised reviews by topic, and summarised findings in text and tables. We categorised interventions as effective (high-quality evidence of effectiveness); possibly effective (moderate-quality evidence of effectiveness); ineffective (high-quality evidence of harm or of lack of effectiveness); probably ineffective (moderate-quality evidence of harm or of lack of effectiveness); and no conclusions possible (low- to very low-quality evidence).

MAIN RESULTS

We included 15 Cochrane reviews. A further 62 reviews pre-specified the outcome cerebral palsy in their methods, but none of the included randomised controlled trials (RCTs) reported this outcome. The included reviews were high quality and at low risk of bias. They included 279 RCTs; data for cerebral palsy were available from 27 (10%) RCTs, involving 32,490 children. They considered interventions for: treating mild to moderate hypertension (two) and pre-eclampsia (two); diagnosing and preventing fetal compromise in labour (one); preventing preterm birth (four); preterm fetal maturation or neuroprotection (five); and managing preterm fetal compromise (one). Quality of evidence ranged from very low to high. Effective interventions: high-quality evidence of effectiveness There was a reduction in cerebral palsy in children born to women at risk of preterm birth who received magnesium sulphate for neuroprotection of the fetus compared with placebo (risk ratio (RR) 0.68, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.54 to 0.87; five RCTs; 6145 children). Probably ineffective interventions: moderate-quality evidence of harm There was an increase in cerebral palsy in children born to mothers in preterm labour with intact membranes who received any prophylactic antibiotics versus no antibiotics (RR 1.82, 95% CI 0.99 to 3.34; one RCT; 3173 children). There was an increase in cerebral palsy in children, who as preterm babies with suspected fetal compromise, were born immediately compared with those for whom birth was deferred (RR 5.88, 95% CI 1.33 to 26.02; one RCT; 507 children). Probably ineffective interventions: moderate-quality evidence of lack of effectiveness There was no clear difference in the presence of cerebral palsy in children born to women at risk of preterm birth who received repeat doses of corticosteroids compared with a single course (RR 1.03, 95% CI 0.71 to 1.50; four RCTs; 3800 children). No conclusions possible: low- to very low-quality evidence Low-quality evidence found there was a possible reduction in cerebral palsy for children born to women at risk of preterm birth who received antenatal corticosteroids for accelerating fetal lung maturation compared with placebo (RR 0.60, 95% CI 0.34 to 1.03; five RCTs; 904 children). There was no clear difference in the presence of cerebral palsy with interventionist care for severe pre-eclampsia versus expectant care (RR 6.01, 95% CI 0.75 to 48.14; one RCT; 262 children); magnesium sulphate for pre-eclampsia versus placebo (RR 0.34, 95% CI 0.09 to 1.26; one RCT; 2895 children); continuous cardiotocography for fetal assessment during labour versus intermittent auscultation (average RR 1.75, 95% CI 0.84 to 3.63; two RCTs; 13,252 children); prenatal progesterone for prevention of preterm birth versus placebo (RR 0.14, 95% CI 0.01 to 3.48; one RCT; 274 children); and betamimetics for inhibiting preterm labour versus placebo (RR 0.19, 95% CI 0.02 to 1.63; one RCT; 246 children).Very low-quality found no clear difference for the presence of cerebral palsy with any antihypertensive drug (oral beta-blockers) for treatment of mild to moderate hypertension versus placebo (RR 0.33, 95% CI 0.01 to 8.01; one RCT; 110 children); magnesium sulphate for prevention of preterm birth versus other tocolytic agents (RR 0.13, 95% CI 0.01 to 2.51; one RCT; 106 children); and vitamin K and phenobarbital prior to preterm birth for prevention of neonatal periventricular haemorrhage versus placebo (RR 0.77, 95% CI 0.33 to 1.76; one RCT; 299 children).

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

This overview summarises evidence from Cochrane reviews on the effects of antenatal and intrapartum interventions on cerebral palsy, and can be used by researchers, funding bodies, policy makers, clinicians and consumers to aid decision-making and evidence translation. We recommend that readers consult the included Cochrane reviews to formally assess other benefits or harms of included interventions, including impacts on risk factors for cerebral palsy (such as the reduction in intraventricular haemorrhage for preterm babies following exposure to antenatal corticosteroids).Magnesium sulphate for women at risk of preterm birth for fetal neuroprotection can prevent cerebral palsy. Prophylactic antibiotics for women in preterm labour with intact membranes, and immediate rather than deferred birth of preterm babies with suspected fetal compromise, may increase the risk of cerebral palsy. Repeat doses compared with a single course of antenatal corticosteroids for women at risk of preterm birth do not clearly impact the risk of cerebral palsy.Cerebral palsy is rarely diagnosed at birth, has diverse risk factors and causes, and is diagnosed in approximately one in 500 children. To date, only a small proportion of Cochrane reviews assessing antenatal and intrapartum interventions have been able to report on this outcome. There is an urgent need for long-term follow-up of RCTs of interventions addressing risk factors for cerebral palsy, and consideration of the use of relatively new interim assessments (including the General Movements Assessment). Such RCTs must be rigorous in their design, and aim for consistency in cerebral palsy outcome measurement and reporting to facilitate pooling of data, to focus research efforts on prevention.

Decreasing prevalence in cerebral palsy: a multi-site European population-based study, 1980 to 2003

AIM

To monitor the trends in prevalence of cerebral palsy (CP) by birthweight in Europe, 1980 to 2003.

METHOD

Data were collated from 20 population-based registers contributing to the Surveillance of Cerebral Palsy in Europe database. Trend analyses were conducted in four birthweight groups: <1000g (extremely low birthweight [ELBW]); 1000 to 1499g (very low birthweight [VLBW]); 1500 to 2499g (moderately low birthweight [MLBW]); and >2499g (normal birthweight [NBW]).

RESULTS

The overall prevalence of CP decreased from 1.90 to 1.77 per 1000 live births, p<0.001, with a mean annual fall of 0.7% (95% confidence interval [CI] -0.3% to -1.0%). Prevalence in NBW children showed a non-significant trend from 1.17 to 0.89 per 1000 live births (p=0.22). Prevalence in MLBW children decreased from 8.5 to 6.2 per 1000 live births (p<0.001), but not linearly. Prevalence in VLBW children also declined from 70.9 to 35.9 per 1000 live births (p<0.001) with a mean annual fall of 3.4% (95% CI -2.4% to -4.3%). Prevalence in ELBW children remained stable, at a mean rate of 42.4 per 1000 live births.

INTERPRETATION

The decline in prevalence of CP in children of VLBW continues, and confirms that previously reported. For the first time, there is also a significant decline among those of MLBW, resulting in a significant overall decrease in the prevalence of CP.

Cerebral Palsy: A Lifelong Challenge Asks for Early Intervention

One of the oldest and probably well-known examples of cerebral palsy is the mummy of the Pharaoh Siptah about 1196-1190 B.C., and a letter from Hippocrates (460-390 B.C.). Cerebral palsy (CP) is one of the most common congenital or acquired neurological impairments in paediatric patients, and refers to a group of children with motor disability and related functional defects. The visible core of CP is characterized by abnormal coordination of movements and/or muscle tone which manifest very early in the development. Resulting from pre- or perinatal brain damage CP is not a progressive condition per se. However, without systematic medical and physiotherapeutic support the dystonia leads to muscle contractions and to deterioration of the handicap. Here we review the three general spastic manifestations of CP hemiplegia, diplegia and tetraplegia, describe the diagnostic procedures and delineate a time schedule for an early intervention.

Disproportionate fetal growth and the risk for congenital cerebral palsy in singleton births

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the association between proportionality of fetal and placental growth measured at birth and the risk for congenital cerebral palsy (CP).

STUDY DESIGN

We identified all live-born singletons born in Denmark between 1995 and 2003 and followed them from 1 year of age until December 31st, 2008. Information on four indices of fetal growth: ponderal index, head circumference/ abdominal circumference ratio, cephalization index and birth weight/ placenta weight ratio was collected. Cox proportional hazards regression models were used to estimate adjusted hazard ratios (aHR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI). All measurements were evaluated as gestational age and sex specific z-scores and in z-score percentile groups, adjusted for potential confounders, and stratified on gestational age groups (<32, 32-36, 37-38, 39, 40, ≥ 41 weeks).

RESULTS

We identified 503,784 singleton births, of which 983 were confirmed cases of CP. Head/ abdominal circumference ratio (aHR:1.12; 95%CI:1.07-1.16) and cephalization index (aHR:1.14; 95%CI:1.11-1.16) were associated with the risk of CP irrespective of gestational age. Birth weight-placental weight ratio was also associated with CP in the entire cohort (aHR:0.90; 95%CI:0.83-0.97). Ponderal index had a u-shaped association with CP, where both children with low and high ponderal index were at higher risk of CP.

CONCLUSIONS

CP is associated with disproportions between birth weight, birth length, placental weight and head circumference suggesting pre and perinatal conditions contribute to fetal growth restriction in children with CP.

A diagnostic approach for cerebral palsy in the genomic era

An ongoing challenge in children presenting with motor delay/impairment early in life is to identify neurogenetic disorders with a clinical phenotype, which can be misdiagnosed as cerebral palsy (CP). To help distinguish patients in these two groups, conventional magnetic resonance imaging of the brain has been of great benefit in "unmasking" many of these genetic etiologies and has provided important clues to differential diagnosis in others. Recent advances in molecular genetics such as chromosomal microarray and next-generation sequencing have further revolutionized the understanding of etiology by more precisely classifying these disorders with a molecular cause. In this paper, we present a review of neurogenetic disorders masquerading as cerebral palsy evaluated at one institution. We have included representative case examples children presenting with dyskinetic, spastic, and ataxic phenotypes, with the intent to highlight the time-honored approach of using clinical tools of history and examination to focus the subsequent etiologic search with advanced neuroimaging modalities and molecular genetic tools. A precise diagnosis of these masqueraders and their differentiation from CP is important in terms of therapy, prognosis, and family counseling. In summary, this review serves as a continued call to remain vigilant for current and other to-be-discovered neurogenetic masqueraders of cerebral palsy, thereby optimizing care for patients and their families.

A systematic review of risk factors for cerebral palsy in children born at term in developed countries

AIM

The aim of this study was to conduct a systematic review in order to identify the risk factors for cerebral palsy (CP) in children born at term. The secondary aim was to ascertain if the potential for prevention of these risk factors has been adequately explored.

METHOD

A MEDLINE search up to 31 July 2011 was completed, following the Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies in Epidemiology guidelines. Publications were reviewed to identify those with both a primary aim of identifying risk factors for all children or term-born children with CP and a cohort or case-control study design. Studies were examined for potential chance or systematic bias. The range of point estimates of relative risk is reported.

RESULTS

From 21 articles meeting inclusion/exclusion criteria and at low risk of bias, data from 6297 children with CP and 3 804 791 children without CP were extracted. Ten risk factors for term-born infants were statistically significant in each study: placental abnormalities, major and minor birth defects, low birthweight, meconium aspiration, instrumental/emergency Caesarean delivery, birth asphyxia, neonatal seizures, respiratory distress syndrome, hypoglycaemia, and neonatal infections. Strategies for possible prevention currently exist for three of these.

INTERPRETATION

Ten consistent risk factors have been identified, some with potential for prevention. Efforts to prevent these risk factors to interrupt the pathway to CP should be extended.

A rat pup model of cerebral palsy induced by prenatal inflammation and hypoxia

Animal models of cerebral palsy established by simple infection or the hypoxia/ischemia method cannot effectively simulate the brain injury of a premature infant. Healthy 17-day-pregnant Wistar rats were intraperitoneally injected with lipopolysaccharide then subjected to hypoxia. The pups were used for this study at 4 weeks of age. Simultaneously, a hypoxia/ischemia group and a control group were used for comparison. The results of the footprint test, the balance beam test, the water maze test, neuroelectrophysiological examination and neuropathological examination demonstrated that, at 4 weeks after birth, footprint repeat space became larger between the forelimbs and hindlimbs of the rats, the latency period on the balance beam and in the Morris water maze was longer, place navigation and ability were poorer, and the stimulus intensity that induced the maximal wave amplitude of the compound muscle action potential was greater in the lipopolysaccharide/hypoxia and hypoxia/ischemia groups than in the control group. We observed irregular cells around the periventricular area, periventricular leukomalacia and breakage of the nuclear membrane in the lipopolysaccharide/hypoxia and hypoxia/ischemia groups. These results indicate that we successfully established a Wistar rat pup model of cerebral palsy by intraperitoneal injection of lipopolysaccharide and hypoxia.

Why the term neonatal encephalopathy should be preferred over neonatal hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy

The unresponsiveness of the full-term newborn is sometimes attributed to asphyxia, even when no severe physiologic disturbance occurred during labor and delivery. The controversy about whether to use the name "hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy" or "newborn encephalopathy" has recently flared in publications directed toward pediatricians and neurologists. In this clinic opinion piece, I discuss the importance to obstetricians of this decision and explain why "newborn encephalopathy" should be the default term.

Postpartum care of a woman with cerebral palsy and deep vein thrombosis: a case study

Pregnancy can be challenging for women with cerebral palsy. Physical limitations and comorbidities can predispose them to complications during pregnancy, such as deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism, making their care needs more complex. A multidisciplinary care plan, as well as clear and effective communication among different health care providers, will help ensure safe and optimal postpartum care of women with cerebral palsy and their newborns.

Developmental profiles and temperament patterns in children with spastic cerebral palsy: relationships with subtypes and severity

BACKGROUND/PURPOSE

Elucidating developmental profiles and temperament patterns in children with cerebral palsy (CP) could help clinicians elaborate more flexible strategies for treating these children. This study investigated the developmental profiles and temperament patterns in children with spastic CP (sCP) of different subtypes and severities.

METHODS

One hundred and five children, aged 3-6 years, with sCP and 66 children with typical development (TD) were analyzed. Children with sCP were classified into spastic diplegia (SD; n = 60), and spastic quadriplegia (SQ; n = 45) groups. Motor severity was classified via the Gross Motor Function Classification System (GMFCS). Development quotients (DQs) of eight domains and temperament scores of nine dimensions were evaluated.

RESULTS

The SQ group had lower DQs in all developmental functions than the SD group (p < 0.01). The DQ distributions of developmental profiles showed the same trend in SD and SQ groups, and both groups displayed lowest DQs in the gross motor domain. The SQ group was less adaptable and approachable than the TD group (p < 0.05), and both sCP groups had lower attention span and persistence and a higher threshold of responsiveness than the TD group (p < 0.05). Correlation analysis showed that GMFCS levels were highly related to all developmental functions (r < -0.54, p<0.01) and weakly related to some temperament dimensions in children with sCP.

CONCLUSION

The subtype and severity of sCP were associated with developmental profiles in children with sCP Temperament patterns were different between SD and SQ groups, but only weakly related to motor deficit. These data could allow clinicians to anticipate the developmental profiles and temperament patterns and plan appropriate therapeutic strategies for children with sCP.

Enhanced survival of skeletal muscle myoblasts in response to overexpression of cold shock protein RBM3

Cold-inducible RNA-binding protein (RBM3) is suggested to be involved in the regulation of skeletal muscle mass. Cell death pathways are implicated in the loss of muscle mass and therefore the role of RBM3 in muscle apoptosis in C(2)C(12) myoblasts was investigated in this study. RBM3 overexpression was induced by either cold shock (32°C exposure for 6 h) or transient transfection with a myc-tagged RBM3 expression vector. Cell death was induced by H(2)O(2) (1,000 μM) or staurosporine (StSp, 5 μM), and it was shown that cold shock and RBM3 transfection were associated with attenuation of morphological changes and an increase in cell viability compared with normal temperature or empty vector, respectively. No changes in proliferation were observed with either cold shock or RBM3 transfection. DNA fragmentation was not increased in response to H(2)O(2), and a cell permeability assay indicated that cell death in response to H(2)O(2) is more similar to necrosis than apoptosis. RBM3 overexpression reduced apoptosis and the collapse of the membrane potential in response to StSp. Moreover, the increase in caspase-3, -8, and -9 activities in response to StSp was returned to control levels with RBM3 overexpression. These results indicate that increased RBM3 expression decreases muscle cell necrosis as well as apoptosis and therefore RBM3 could potentially serve as an intervention for the loss of muscle cell viability during muscle atrophy and muscle diseases.

Population case-control study of cerebral palsy: neonatal predictors for low-risk term singletons

OBJECTIVES

For singletons with cerebral palsy (CP) who were born at term, the goals were (1) to determine the proportion not admitted to a Special Care Unit/NICU (NICU), (2) to compare clinical descriptions of those admitted to NICUs and those not admitted, and (3) to identify neonatal predictors of CP among those not admitted to a NICU.

METHODS

A total-population case- (N = 442) control (N = 468) study of, singleton, term-born infants with CP, as ascertained from the Western Australian Cerebral Palsy Register, was performed.

RESULTS

All types of CP were represented among the 67% of term infants with CP (N = 295) who were not admitted to a NICU, which also included 54% of the subjects with the most severe impairments. Independent neonatal predictors were abnormalities of tone (odds ratio [OR]: 7.3 [95% confidence interval [CI]: 2-26.8]), temperature regulation (OR: 4.1 [95% CI: 1.2-14]), consciousness (OR: 3.7 [95% CI: 2-7]), and fontanelles (OR: 4.4 [95% CI: 0.8-23]), requirement for resuscitation (OR: 2.9 [95% CI: 2.2-12.9]), and birth defects (OR: 5.1 [95% CI: 2.4-10]). The risk of CP increased with the number of factors, but 58% of subjects who were not admitted to a NICU exhibited none of these factors.

CONCLUSIONS

Neonatal predictors of CP among term infants not admitted to a NICU were identified. However, 39% of all term singletons with CP were not admitted to a NICU and exhibited none of these predictors.

Developmental profiles of preschool children with spastic diplegic and quadriplegic cerebral palsy

Cerebral palsy (CP) is a disorder of movement and posture control with multiple impairments. The clinical manifestations of CP vary among children. The aim of this study was to compare the developmental profiles of preschool children with either of two types of CP: spastic diplegic (SD) CP and spastic quadriplegic (SQ) CP. Relationships between the children's various developmental functions were also investigated. We recruited 137 children with spastic CP, aged 1-5 years (mean age = 3.7 +/- 2.1 years), and we classified them into two groups: SD (n = 59) and SQ (n = 78). The comparison group comprised 18 children with typical development. Developmental functions were assessed in all the children, using the Chinese Child Development Inventory with the updated norms. This scale addressed eight functional domains: gross motor ability, fine motor ability, expressive language ability, concept comprehension ability, situation comprehension ability, self-help ability, personal-social skills, and general development. A development quotient (DQ) was determined for each domain as a percentage of the developmental age divided by the chronological age. The developmental profiles of the CP subtypes were found to differ. Children with SQ were found to have lower DQs than those with SD (p < 0.01). There was also a difference in the distribution of DQs between the SD and SQ groups, although the lowest DQ in both groups was for the gross motor domain. An uneven delay in the development of gross motor function was found in both groups of children with CP. Motor functions, including gross motor and fine motor functions, were significantly related to self-help ability. Complex and significant correlations among developmental functions were also identified in children with CP. The findings in the present study may allow clinicians to anticipate the developmental profile of children with CP on the basis of whether they have the SD or SQ subtype. This, in turn, is likely to facilitate individual assessment, goal setting, and the planning of interventions in children with CP.

Role of p75NTR in NMDAR-mediated excitotoxic brain injury in neonatal mice

BACKGROUND

Perinatal brain injury in preterm infants is a major cause of neurological handicap. The role of the neurotrophin receptor p75 (p75(NTR)) in the pathogenesis and repair of neonatal excitotoxic brain injury is unknown. Depending on a complex interplay of neurotrophin signalling, p75(NTR) can, in addition to its trophic function, also induce apoptosis.

HYPOTHESIS

We hypothesised that excitotoxicity increases p75(NTR) expression and p75(NTR) knockout (KO) mice have a significantly smaller lesion size upon excitotoxicity as compared to wild-type (WT) mice.

METHODS

We used an established animal model of neonatal excitotoxic brain injury mimicking several key aspects of human preterm brain damage. We subjected five-day-old WT and KO mice to excitotoxic injury by means of a single intracranial ibotenate injection (N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor agonist, NMDAR) into one brain hemisphere. Lesion size, number of activated caspase-3- and apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF)-positive cells were determined as outcome parameters. Gender analyses were taken into account retrospectively.

RESULTS

NMDAR-mediated excitotoxicity induced an upregulation of p75(NTR) expression in the peri-lesion area. Lesion size was significantly increased in female KO as compared to male KO animals. Knockout of p75(NTR) reduced the number of activated caspase-3 but not AIF-positive cells after NMDAR-mediated excitotoxic injury independently of gender.

CONCLUSION

Since NMDAR-mediated excitotoxic brain injury induced p75(NTR) expression and caspase-3-activated apoptosis in p75(NTR) KO animals was decreased, we conclude that activation of p75(NTR) contributes to NMDAR-mediated apoptosis in the neonatal brain. An increase in lesion size in female animals after excitotoxic brain injury suggests that in females p75(NTR) seems to play a dual role.

Apolipoprotein E genotype and cerebral palsy

AIM

Apolipoprotein E (APOE, protein; [ApoE, gene]) is a lipid transport protein abundantly present in brain cells. We investigated whether the APOE genotype is associated with cerebral palsy (CP) and whether patients with CP with comorbid conditions and more severe neurological deficits are likely to have a particular genotype.

METHOD

In a cross-sectional study, 243 individuals with spastic CP (135 males, 108 females; mean age at data collection 11 year ([SD 6y 7mo], 34% with hemiplegia, 37% with diplegia, 29% with triplegia/tetraplegia; 44% with mild motor involvement), 31% with moderate motor involvement, 25% with severe motor involvement, were compared with healthy individuals matched by age, race, and sex to analyse the association between APOE genotype and the incidence of CP. Associations between the APOE genotype and the incidence of comorbidities and neurological deficits were studied in the group with CP.

RESULTS

The APOE epsilon2epsilon3 genotype was significantly more prevalent in the group with CP (11%) than the comparison group (5%) (odds ratio [OR] 2.8; 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.01-7.66). The presence of the epsilon2 allele raised the probability of having CP (OR 3.2; 95% CI 1.27-8.27). The presence of ApoE epsilon4 was not significantly different among groups. No relation was found between APOE genotype and severity of neurological deficit or distribution of motor involvement. Four patients with CP presented the epsilon4epsilon4 genotype, and all exhibited epilepsy and microcephaly. Eleven of 12 individuals with CP and macrocephaly carried the epsilon3epsilon3 genotype.

INTERPRETATION

A higher prevalence of the APOE epsilon2 genotype was found among those with CP. The association of microcephaly and epilepsy with the epsilon4epsilon4 genotype and the association of macrocephaly with epsilon3 demand further investigation.

Neonatal outcomes and operative vaginal delivery versus cesarean delivery

We compared outcomes for neonates with forceps-assisted, vacuum-assisted, or cesarean delivery in the second stage of labor. This is a secondary analysis of a randomized trial in laboring, low-risk, nulliparous women at >or=36 weeks' gestation. Neonatal outcomes after use of forceps, vacuum, and cesarean were compared among women in the second stage of labor at station +1 or below (thirds scale) for failure of descent or nonreassuring fetal status. Nine hundred ninety women were included in this analysis: 549 (55%) with an indication for delivery of failure of descent and 441 (45%) for a nonreassuring fetal status. Umbilical cord gases were available for 87% of neonates. We found no differences in the base excess (P = 0.35 and 0.78 for failure of descent and nonreassuring fetal status) or frequencies of pH below 7.0 (P = 0.73 and 0.34 for failure of descent and nonreassuring fetal status) among the three delivery methods. Birth outcomes and umbilical cord blood gas values were similar for those neonates with a forceps-assisted, vacuum-assisted, or cesarean delivery in the second stage of labor. The occurrence of significant fetal acidemia was not different among the three delivery methods regardless of the indication.

Inflammation processes in perinatal brain damage

Once viewed as an isolated, immune-privileged organ, the central nervous system has undergone a conceptual change. Neuroinflammation has moved into the focus of research work regarding pathomechanisms underlying perinatal brain damage. In this review, we provide an overview of current concepts regarding perinatal brain damage and the role of inflammation in the disease pathomechanism.

Cerebral palsy: classification, diagnosis and challenges of care

This article aims to build capacity between nursing and allied healthcare practitioner staff in highlighting the unique challenges that caring for people with cerebral palsy (CP) brings. It gives an insight into how CP is classified and diagnosed, and briefly outlines issues of political correctness in labelling people with this condition. It covers the complexities of brain development in people with CP, with consideration of the key aetiological contributors to the incidence of the condition. A straightforward approach to unravelling the classification of movement disorders in CP is adopted. It concludes that a multidisciplinary approach to the management of CP, with the nurse at the centre of this holistic approach to patient care, is pivotal to future healthcare provision.

Using proteomics in perinatal and neonatal sepsis: hopes and challenges for the future

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Particularities of the fetal immune response to infection cause a heightened inflammatory state that acts synergistically with microbial insult to induce damage. Proteomics offers the opportunity for detecting fetuses at risk of sepsis and neurological injury.

RECENT FINDINGS

Molecular tools (16S-rRNA) demonstrate that the diversity of microbial agents of intra-amniotic infection exceeds what is suspected clinically or is documented by cultures. The resulting inflammatory process has the potential to damage the fetus in utero. Stepwise algorithms (mass restricted score) have been developed to extract proteomic profiles characteristic of amniotic fluid inflammation. The mass restricted score includes four proteomic biomarkers: defensin-2, defensin-1, S100A12, and S100A8 proteins. Other amniotic fluid biomarkers relevant for preterm birth are S100A9 and insulin-like growth factor-binding protein 1. S100A12 - ligand for the receptor of advanced glycation end products - has the strongest association with histological chorioamnionitis and funisitis. Presence of S100A12 and S100A8 in amniotic fluid is predictive of early-onset neonatal sepsis and poor neurodevelopmental outcome.

SUMMARY

Presence of amniotic fluid proteomic biomarkers of inflammation is associated with increased inflammatory status of the fetus at birth. Future challenges are to find biomarkers that provide insight into molecular mechanisms of chronic fetal and neonatal cellular damage and to identify candidates for early neuroprotection strategies.

Developmental motor deficits induced by combined fetal exposure to lipopolysaccharide and early neonatal hypoxia/ischemia: a novel animal model for cerebral palsy in very premature infants

A critical issue in animal models of perinatal brain injury is to adapt the pertinent pathophysiological scenarios to their corresponding developmental window in order to induce neuropathological and behavioral characteristics reminiscent to perinatal cerebral palsy (CP). A major problem in most of these animal models designed up to now is that they do not present motor deficits characteristic of CP. Using a unique rat paradigm of prenatal inflammation combined to an early postnatal hypoxia-ischemia pertinent to the context of very early premature human newborns, we were interested in finding out if such experimental conditions might reproduce both histological damages and behavioral deficits previously described in the human context. We showed that exposure to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) or hypoxia-ischemia (H/I) induced behavioral alterations in animals subjected to forced motor activity. When both LPS and H/I aggressions were combined, the motor deficits reached their highest intensity and affected both spontaneous and forced motor activities. LPS+H/I-exposed animals also showed extensive bilateral cortical and subcortical lesions of the motor networks affecting the frontal cortices and underlying white matters fascicles, lenticular nuclei and the substantia nigra. These neuropathological lesions and their associated motor behavioral deficits are reminiscent of those observed in very preterm human neonates affected by subsequent CP and validate the value of the present animal model to test new therapeutic strategies which might open horizons for perinatal neuroprotection.

Magnetic resonance imaging in cerebral ischemia: focus on neonates

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has dramatically changed our ability to diagnose and treat stroke as well as follow its evolution and response to treatment. Early stroke and ischemia can be visualized using diffusion-weighted imaging (DWI), which utilizes proton diffusion within tissues as a reporter for evolving neuropathology that reflects cytotoxic edema, particularly during the first several days after injury. Historically, T2-weighted imaging (T2WI) has been used for evaluation of vasogenic edema and also is a reliable indicator of injured tissue late after injury. While visual analysis of MR data can provide information about the evolution of injury, quantitative analyses allow definitive and objective evaluations of injury size and location and the effectiveness of novel therapeutic strategies. We review the clinical basis of imaging for stroke and ischemia diagnosis and the methods for post-processing of MR data that could provide novel insights into the evolution and pathophysiology of stroke in the newborn.