Adverse Reactions to Antiepileptic Drugs in Epileptic Outpatients: A Cross-Sectional Study in Iran

Impact of depressive symptoms on adverse effects in people with epilepsy on antiseizure medication therapy

OBJECTIVE

We studied the impact of depressive symptoms on adverse effects (AEs) in people with epilepsy (PWE) on antiseizure medication (ASM) therapy. An effect of depression on the AE burden has already been reported. We studied the correlation of various depressive symptoms with specific AEs to assess which AEs are especially prone to being confounded by particular depressive symptoms.

METHODS

PWE filled in a variety of questionnaires including the "Neurological Disorder Depression Inventory for Epilepsy" (NDDI-E), "Emotional Thermometers 4" (ET4) and "Liverpool Adverse Events Profile" (LAEP). Depression was defined by a NDDI-E score > 13. Depressive symptoms consisted of NDDI-E and ET4 items. Discriminant analysis identified those AEs (=LAEP items) that were most highly influenced by depression. Logistic regression analysis yielded correlations of different depressive symptoms with specific AEs.

RESULTS

We included 432 PWE. The strongest discriminators for depression were the LAEP items "Depression", "Nervousness/agitation," and "Tiredness". Out of all depressive symptoms "Everything I do is a struggle" most strongly correlated with total LAEP score (odds ratio [OR] = 3.1) and correlated with all but one LAEP item. Other depressive symptoms correlated to varying degrees with total LAEP and item scores. The number of ASMs, lack of seizure remission, and female gender correlated with high LAEP scores.

SIGNIFICANCE

To the best of our knowledge, we are the first to show that various depressive symptoms correlate with specific LAEP items. This information can be helpful for quick evaluation of whether the reporting of different LAEP items may be confounded by particular depressive symptoms. This is relevant because changes in therapy may differ depending on if AEs are confounded by depressive symptoms. Simply reporting a particular depressive symptom may give a clue to whether specific AEs are confounded by depression. Our findings confirm the importance of screening for depression in all PWE.

PLAIN LANGUAGE SUMMARY

In this study we measured depressive disorder and side effects caused by medication used to treat epilepsy with self-reported questionnaires in a cohort of people with epilepsy. We found depressive disorder to influence the perception of side effects that are caused by drugs used to treat epilepsy. This knowledge can help to identify if the reporting of side effects is influenced by depression. Treating depression may help to reduce side effects and may thus increase the tolerability of anti-epileptic medication. People who tolerate their medication are more likely to take it and are thus less likely to develop epileptic seizure.

Comparing patient reported and medical record data of adverse drug reactions to anti-seizure drugs

BACKGROUND

Anti-seizure drugs (ASDs) can potentially cause serious adverse drug reactions (ADRs). Patient self-reporting can increase the rate of ADR detection, but studies examining patient self-reporting of ADRs caused by ASDs are lacking.

AIM

To determine the characteristics of ADRs reported by patients receiving ASDs, assess laboratory data and medical record confirmation of patient-reported ADRs, and explore factors associated with laboratory data and medical record confirmation.

METHOD

A self-reporting questionnaire was distributed to patients prescribed ASDs at outpatient clinics. Patients assessed the causality of suspected ADRs using Causality Assessment Tool. Naranjo's algorithm was used by researchers for causality assessment. Medical records were used to gather information on ADR symptoms, ASD medication, and abnormal laboratory data.

RESULTS

From 478 distributed questionnaires, 93.1% completed the questionnaire and 67.4% of respondents reported at least one ADR. The most common ADRs were drowsiness (50.7%), dizziness (9.7%), and ataxia (4.3%). For causality, suspected ADRs were classified as possible in 52.3% of cases and probable in 46.3% of cases by patients, and possible in 64.7% of cases and probable in 25.7% of cases by researchers. Only 12.7% of patients had laboratory data and/or medical record confirmation of suspected ADRs. The psychiatry clinic was less likely to confirm suspected ADRs compared to the epilepsy clinic (OR = 0.412, p = 0.022).

CONCLUSION

Confirmation of patient-reported ADRs with either laboratory data or medical records was uncommon. Recording patient-reported ADRs in patients' medical history and monitoring laboratory tests related to patient-reported symptoms should be promoted to increase the safety of ASD treatment.

[Guidelines for the management of adverse effects of anti-seizure medications (2023)]

Epilepsy is a prevalent neurological disorder with a complex etiology and an unclear pathogenesis. In order to standardize the management of adverse effects caused by anti-seizure medications (ASMs), the Youth Committee of the Chinese Association Against Epilepsy (CAAE), in collaboration with the CAAE Precision Medicines and Adverse Effect Monitoring Committee, has developed a guideline: guidelines for the management of adverse effects of anti-seizure medications (2023). This guideline addresses 13 clinical questions related to the management of adverse effects of ASMs in the nervous system, cardiovascular system, and fetus. Its primary objective is to provide guidance to medical professionals specializing in pediatric neurology, neurology, and neurosurgery in China, and to facilitate their clinical practice.

Beneficial Effects of Statins on Seizures Independent of Their Lipid-Lowering Effect: A Narrative Review

Among the many types of central nervous system (CNS) disorders, seizures and epilepsy severely affect the quality of life and routine daily activity of the sufferers. We aimed to review research studies that investigated the effect of statins on the prevention and treatment of seizures and epilepsy. Both animal models and human studies were included in this review. This article starts with a brief introduction about seizure, its prevalence, treatment, and various animal models of seizures and epilepsy. Next, we discuss statin's mechanism of action, side effects, and effects on neurological disorders with a specific focus on seizures. Finally, the effects of different types of statins on seizures are compared. The present review gives a better understanding of the therapeutic effects of statins on neurological disorders in animal models and human studies. This permits researchers to set up study designs to resolve current ambiguities and contradictions on the beneficial effects of statins on neurological disorders.

Evaluation of Pharmacovigilance System in Iran

BACKGROUND

Evaluating a pharmacovigilance system helps identify its deficiencies and could facilitate measures to remedy and improve the quantity and quality of adverse drug reaction (ADR) reports and other opportunities for pharmacovigilance systems strengthening. This study aimed to evaluate the status of pharmacovigilance in Iran using the World Health Organization (WHO) pharmacovigilance indicators with the prospect of identifying the gaps and areas for improvement.

METHODS

This study was conducted in 2 parts. The first part included a secondary analysis of the national data obtained from the Iranian National Pharmacovigilance Center (PVC) using a structured data collection form based on WHO core pharmacovigilance indicators. In the second part, a 3-month prospective study was carried out to investigate 2 outcome indicators, ie, length of stay and costs of medicine-related hospitalization in all patients of 2 main referral hospitals in the southeast and north of Iran.

RESULTS

Iran has a PVC with national policy, trained staff, and a statutory budget. In 2017, the number of ADR reports was 15.0 per 100 000 population, and 262 signals were detected during the preceding 5 years. The average length of stay and costs of medicine-related hospitalization were 5 days and US$817.2 in Afzalipour hospital and 6.6 days and US$306.7 in Razi hospital, respectively. The status of pharmacovigilance in the Iranian public health programs (PHPs) is unknown, and most of the indicators could not be assessed.

CONCLUSION

A robust pharmacovigilance system is a pivotal part of the overall medicines regulatory system. The Iranian pharmacovigilance system has relatively the proper structural condition. Though the underreporting of ADRs, especially medicine-related deaths, is an important issue, and some indicators' status was unclear. The Iranian pharmacovigilance program requires a higher prioritization, particularly in the PHPs, a greater allocation of resources, and cross-sectoral cooperation to bolster and achieve the pharmacovigilance objectives.

Sex Differences in the Risk of Cutaneous Adverse Drug Reactions Induced by Antiseizure Medications: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Cutaneous adverse drug reactions (cADRs) are one of the most common, severe, and life-threatening types of adverse reactions following treatment with antiseizure medications (ASMs). Some studies have reported a higher incidence of ASM-induced cADRs in females than in males.

OBJECTIVE

This study sought to perform a systematic review, meta-analysis, and meta-regression to compare the ASM cADR risks between females and males.

METHODS

We searched the literature using three databases (EMBASE, PubMed, and Web of Science) between October 1998 and November 2018, later updated to October 2019. Studies were included in the meta-analysis if they met the following criteria: (1) observational studies that estimated the incidence of cADRs related to ASMs; (2) provided the risk or odds ratio (OR) for cADRs among female and male patients exposed to ASMs; and (3) provided information on patients' characteristics. We assessed the impact of study characteristics, publication bias, and measures to reduce bias, and performed a DerSimonian and Laird random effects meta-analysis.

RESULTS

We included 28 studies in this review. Of these, seven studies were eligible for inclusion in the meta-analysis, involving a total of 223,209 patients. Overall, females were more likely to develop cADRs to ASMs than males (OR 1.76, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.55-1.99). The largest differences were observed in patients prescribed lamotrigine (OR 2.17, 95% CI 1.53-3.08, p < 0.001) and carbamazepine (OR 1.63, 95% CI 1.02-2.60, p = 0.042). Also, the OR trended higher for phenytoin (OR 2.46, 95% CI 0.79-7.65, p = 0.12), followed by oxcarbazepine (OR 1.91, 95% CI 0.75-4.85, p = 0.18) and sodium valproate (OR 0.60, 95% CI 0.12-2.99, p = 0.53), but the difference did not reach statistical significance. In the remaining 21 studies, 13 reported numerically higher risk of cADRs among females compared to male patients, and in five of these, the difference was statistically significant.

CONCLUSION

Our findings confirmed that females are more susceptible to cADRs induced by ASMs than males. More research is needed to understand the pathophysiological mechanisms for this difference.

PROTOCOL REGISTRATION

PROSPERO (CRD42018111943).

Major Neurologic Adverse Drug Reactions, Potential Drug-Drug Interactions and Pharmacokinetic Aspects of Drugs Used in COVID-19 Patients with Stroke: A Narrative Review

Stroke has been considered as one of the underlying diseases that increases the probability of severe infection and mortality. Meanwhile, there are ongoing reports of stroke subsequent to COVID-19 infection. In this narrative paper, we reviewed major neurologic adverse drug reactions (ADRs) and pharmacokinetics of drugs which are routinely used for COVID-19 infection and their potential drug-drug interactions (PDDIs) with common drugs used for the treatment of stroke. It is highly recommended to monitor patients on chloroquine (CQ), hydroxychloroquine (HCQ), antiviral drugs, and/or corticosteroids about initiation or progression of cardiac arrhythmias, delirium, seizure, myopathy, and/or neuropathy. In addition, PDDIs of anti-COVID-19 drugs with tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), anticoagulants, antiaggregants, statins, antihypertensive agents, and iodine-contrast agents should be considered. The most dangerous PDDIs were interaction of lopinavir/ritonavir or atazanavir with clopidogrel, prasugrel, and new oral anticoagulants (NOACs).

Protective Effects of Ursodeoxycholic Acid on Valproic Acid Induced Hepatotoxicity in Epileptic Children with Recurrent Seizure; A Double-Blinded Randomized Clinical Trial

Background : There are controversies regarding the protective role of ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA) against valproic acid (VPA)-induced hepatotoxicity in children. In the present clinical trial, we assessed the potential role of UDCA in preventing VPA-induced fluctuations of hepatic enzymes in epileptic children with recurrent seizures. Methods: Two-hundred children with epileptic seizures were randomly allocated into either intervention (VPA+UDCA) or control (VPA+ placebo) group. Fluctuations of liver enzymes were recorded at baseline, as well as 48 hours, 1 month, and 3 months following the interventions. Results: The mean age of the patients was 7.33±2.96 years (the range of 4-16). Males and females constituted 43 (43%) and 57 (57%) subjects in each group respectively. There were no significant differences in the baseline levels of aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) between the intervention and control groups. At 48 hours post-intervention, AST and ALT increased 1.7% and 11.05% (23.18±7.91 and 30.75±4.20 IU/l) in the intervention group and 21.3% and 35% (28.46±3.71 and 35.62±7.72 IU/l) in the control group respectively (P<0.0001). Both AST (P<0.001) and ALT (P=0.03) levels were significantly lower in the intervention than placebo group at 1-month post-intervention. At 3-month post-intervention; however, while AST level still was significantly higher in the control (29.87±5.41 IU/l) than intervention (21.63±6.87 IU/l, P<0.0001), ALT level was not significantly different between the two groups (32.72±5.59 IU/l and 32.01±7.89 IU/l respectively, P=0.5). Conclusion: UDCA can be an effective drug to manage VPA-induced fluctuations of hepatic enzymes in children with recurrent epileptic seizures.

Adverse drug reactions associated with six commonly used antiepileptic drugs in southern China from 2003 to 2015

BACKGROUND

This active, open observational study aimed to investigate adverse drug reactions (ADRs) associated with six commonly used antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) in southern Chinese outpatients with epilepsy from 2003 to 2015.

METHODS

The Wenzhou Epilepsy Follow-Up Registry Database (WEFURD) was established by a single epilepsy center in China in January 2003 to record AED efficacy and the associated ADRs by registered outpatients diagnosed with epilepsy. We reviewed the data of outpatients who had only taken one or more of six commonly used AEDs, namely, carbamazepine (CBZ), valproate (VPA), lamotrigine (LTG), oxcarbazepine (OXC), topiramate (TPM) and levetiracetam (LEV), and were registered in the WEFURD between 2003 and 2015. We evaluated the ADRs caused by the single or combined use of the above six specific AEDs based on the WHO-UMC scale. The data of the ADRs were categorized by age, sex, number of AEDs related to ADRs, medications, seriousness of ADRs, causality levels of the WHO-UMC scale and system organ class (SOC). The unit of analysis was one ADR.

RESULTS

A total of 3069 epilepsy outpatients (1807 outpatients with 5049 eligible ADRs and 1262 outpatients without ADRs) were included. The overall ADR rate was 58.88% (1807/3069). An average of 2.79 ADRs (5049/1807) occurred per patient with an ADR; 53.8% of the 5049 ADRs were recorded in females, and 50.4% were caused by monotherapy. Of the ADRs, 10.6% (537/5049) were severe adverse reactions (SARs), including 34 serious adverse effects (SAEs). The SAR rates caused by one, two and three or more AEDs were 9.9, 10.0 and 19.6%, respectively (p <  0.001). Eighteen SOC categories were identified, and the top three were psychiatric disorders (1633/5049, 32.3%), neurological disorders (1222/5049, 24.2%) and gastrointestinal disorders (564/5049, 11.2%). Of the 537 SARs, skin and appendage disorders accounted for 24.4% (131/537). Among the 34 SAEs, serious allergies, fetal malformations, renal calculus and pancreatitis accounted for the majority.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that clinicians should pay attention to psychiatric ADRs and be alert for SARs, especially when three or more AEDs are used together. Moreover, active surveillance might provide another method of pharmacovigilance in China.

Drug utilisation study in patients receiving antiepileptic drugs in Colombia

INTRODUCTION

This study examines the indications according to which antiepileptic drugs are prescribed and used in a population of patients enrolled in the Colombian national health system (SGSSS).

METHODS

Retrospective cross-sectional study. From the pool of individuals in 34 Colombian cities who used antiepileptic drugs between 18 July, 2013 and 31 August, 2014 during a period of no less than 12 months, we obtained a random sample stratified by city. Socio-demographic, pharmacological and comorbidity variables were analysed. Continuous and categorical variables were compared, and logistic regression models were used.

RESULTS

Our patient total was 373 patients, with 197 women (52.1%) and a mean age of 41.9 ± 21.7 years; 65.4% of the patients were treated with monotherapy. The most frequently used drugs were valproic acid (53.1%) and carbamazepine (33.2%). Epilepsy was the most frequent indication (n=178; 47.7%); however, 52.3% of the patients were prescribed antiepileptics for different indications, especially neuropathic pain (26.8%), affective disorders (14.2%) and migraine prophylaxis (12.3%). A total of 81 patients with epilepsy (46.6%) displayed good seizure control while another 25 (14.4%) had drug-resistant epilepsy. In the multivariate analysis, medication adherence was associated with a lower risk of treatment failure in patients with epilepsy (OR: 0.27; 95%CI, 0.11-0.67).

CONCLUSIONS

In Colombia, antiepileptic drugs are being used for indications other than those originally intended. Monotherapy is the most commonly used treatment approach, together with the use of classic antiepileptic drugs.

Adverse effects of antiepileptic drugs in North Indian pediatric outpatients

PURPOSE

The present study investigates the pattern and predictors of treatment-emergent adverse drug reactions (ADRs) in children diagnosed with epilepsy.

METHODS

We conducted prospective observational study in a tertiary care teaching hospital on 277 epileptic children. Antiepileptic drug (AED)-associated ADRs, demographic and clinical characteristics, AED regimen, and so on were recorded. Causality, severity, and preventability were performed by World Health Organization-Uppsala Monitoring Center scale, Hartwig's severity scale, and Schumock and Thornton questionnaire, respectively.

RESULTS

Of the enrolled population, 53% children had symptomatic epilepsy, and 51% were in 5- to 10-year age group. More than two-thirds of children were on monotherapy, with phenytoin (n = 176, 63.5%) being the most common AED. Three hundred fifty-three AED-related ADRs were recorded in 175 children (63.2%). Poor scholastic performance (19%) was the most common ADR, followed by gum hypertrophy (13.3%), headache (10.2%), behavioral problems (5.7%), drowsiness (5.7%), and others. Two hundred sixteen ADRs were probable, and 126 ADRs were possible. Severe ADRs were noted in 6 children. Girls (odds ratio [OR], 1.93; 95% confidence interval [95% CI], 1.07-3.45; P = 0.03), children with secondary epilepsy (OR, 3.31; 95% CI, 1.76-6.23; P ≤ 0.001), children older than 5 years (5-10 years; OR, 6.28; 95% CI, 2.79-14.12; P ≤ 0.001), and those older than 10 years (OR, 9.04; 95% CI, 3.69-22.17; P ≤ 0.001) were found to be at higher risk of experiencing ADRs.

CONCLUSIONS

Monotherapy was the preferred treatment. Phenytoin was the most common ADR causative agent. Female sex, symptomatic epilepsy, and older age (> 5 years) were found to be associated with higher probability of ADR development.

Self reported adverse effects of mono and polytherapy for epilepsy

PURPOSE

Adverse effects of anti epileptic drugs (AEDs) can significantly affect the life of people with epilepsy. We used a register to determine if polytherapy with AED has more adverse effects than monotherapy.

METHODS

We established a register for people with epilepsy (www.UKAED.info). Participants were requested to complete the Liverpool Adverse Event Profile (LAEP) to quantify adverse effects. We also recorded type of epilepsy, seizure control and AED including drug doses. Five hundred and seventy six complete data sets were available, monotherapy (n=186), polytherapy (n=325) and control subjects not taking AED (n=65).

RESULTS

The mean LAEP scores in polytherapy (45.56, confidence interval (CI)=44.36-46.76) were significantly higher than the mean LAEP scores in monotherapy (42.29, CI=40.65-44.02) and the mean LAEP scores in controls (33.25, CI=31.05-35.44). Tiredness, memory problems and difficulty concentrating were the most common symptoms in patients taking AED and were consistently higher in polytherapy than in monotherapy. Tiredness was reported as always or sometimes being a problem in (polytherapy/monotherapy/controls) 82.5%/75.6%/64.6%, memory problems in 76%/63.2%/29.2% and difficulty concentrating in 68%/63.9%/30.8%. The proportion of seizure-free patients was significantly lower in the polytherapy group (17%) than in the monotherapy group (55%). Depression rates between the monotherapy and polytherapy groups were similar. Drug dosages were higher in polytherapy, however this did not reach statistical significance.

CONCLUSION

Patients on polytherapy had significantly higher LAEP scores than patients on monotherapy. This should be carefully discussed with the patient before a second AED is added.