Protein three-dimensional structures at the origin of life

Simplified biomimetic peptide-based vehicle for enhanced tumor penetration and rapid enzyme-induced drug release

Various nanodrug vehicles were well-designed with complicated functions for tumor therapy. However, the unsatisfactory tumor delivery efficiency and uncertain off-target release became the stumbling block of the nanodrugs on the way to the clinic. Inspired by efficient tumor targeting ability of albumin, we reported a simplified biomimetic peptide-based vehicle synthesized by copolymerizing L-glutamyl-L-lysine unit (EK dimer, an intrinsic surface peptide pair from albumin) with L-phenylalanine (F) to encapsulate doxorubicin (Dox). The zwitterionic peptide shell based on EK pair made the system exhibit prolonged blood circulation by mimicking the surface function of albumin, and enhanced tumor penetration by liquefying gelated water molecules in tumor extracellular matrix (ECM). Meanwhile, the overexpressed enzymes (cathepsin B, CB) in tumor can trigger the degradation of the peptide scaffold so as to rapidly release Dox. This simplified albumin-mimicking approach can provide a promising nanodrug delivering platform for clinical application.

Superabsorbent Polymers: Innovations in Ecology, Environmental, and Diverse Applications

Significant progress has been achieved in the development of superabsorbent polymers (SAPs), focusing on enhancing their performance and expanding their applications. Efforts are particularly directed at increasing water absorbency while promoting environmental sustainability. Biodegradable materials such as starch and potassium humate have been successfully integrated with SAPs for desert greening, improving water retention, salt resistance, and seedling survival. The inclusion of nutrient-rich organic-inorganic composites further enhances the durability, efficiency, and recyclability of SAPs. In drought mitigation, polymeric absorbent resins such as polyacrylamide and starch-grafted acrylates have shown efficacy in ameliorating soil conditions and fostering plant growth. In arid environments, agents enriched with humic acid and bentonite contribute to improved soil aeration and water retention, creating optimal conditions for plant establishment. Additionally, the adoption of innovative waste management solutions has led to the production of amphiphilic SAPs from residual sludge, effectively addressing soil nutrient deficiencies and environmental pollution. In the food industry, SAPs containing protease, tea polyphenols, and chitosan exhibit potential for enhancing the stability and quality of seafood products. These advancements highlight the growing relevance of structural optimization approaches in SAP development across diverse applications and underline the importance of continued innovation in these fields. As novel materials emerge and environmental challenges intensify, the potential applications of SAPs are anticipated to expand significantly.

Decoding the Torsional Dynamics of Main-Chain Atoms Within CαNN Motif Facilitating Specific Anion Recognition

The structural plasticity of proteins at the molecular level is largely dictated by backbone torsion angles, which play a critical role in ligand recognition and binding. To establish the anion-induced cooperative arrangement of the main-chain (mc) torsion, herein, we analyzed a set of naturally occurring CαNN motifs as "static models" for their anion-binding competence through docking and molecular dynamics simulations and decoded its torsion angle influenced mc-driven anion recognition potential. By comparing a pool of 20 distinct sets of CαNN motif with identical sequences in their "anion bound/present, aP" and "anion free/absent, aA" versions, we could discern that there exists a positive correlation between the "difference of anion residence time (ΔRT)" and "difference among the main-chain torsion angle" of the aP and aA population. Notably, the anion interaction with CαNNs is locally energetically favorable even in a context-free non-proteinaceous environment and if the difference of the mc-torsion angles involving the Cα-1, N0, N1 residues for a population is higher between the aP and aA state, the difference among the ligand RT is also greater. At the atomistic level, the accommodation of anion is highly synergistic and cooperatively sways the interacting mc-atom torsions. By comparing the clustering of H-bonding patterns, the free energy of binding, and RT in both states, we provide evidence that to establish favorable thermodynamics and kinetics of ligand accommodation in these short structural motifs, proper reorientation of local-mc governed by torsions is a prerequisite. Our findings position the CαNN motif as a promising scaffold for peptidomimetic design and emphasize the critical role of loop region dynamics in protein structure-function relationships.

Intrinsic proclivity of left-handed conformation in large Nest motif peptides inferred from molecular dynamics

The 'Nest' motif plays a functional role in protein owing to its ligand binding potential aided by geometric concavity. The presence of less favored left-handed conformation (L-state) in its structure makes this concavity possible and in shaping the native chemical environment amenable to stable binding interactions. To understand the persistent appearance of L-state torsion in the Nest motif, we analyzed 0.5μs Molecular Dynamics (MD) simulation trajectories of 35 six-residue peptides (out of a total of 50 large Nest sequences of ≥6 residues) identified in our previous study. Analysis of the MD trajectories of the individual peptides reveals initial L-state in 60% of the peptides persists for >40% of the trajectory. Further, Nests with different sequences appear to adopt a specific conformational state driven by the neighboring L-state residues. The sequences also possess short secondary structures and amino acid repeats, suggesting evolutionary conservation and the specific role of amino acids in locally predisposing the torsion angle to the L-state. These findings help us to understand how L-state conformation is an essential prerequisite in stabilizing the Nest motif and shed light on the sequence-structure-function paradigm in the rational design of peptides and peptidomimetics for therapeutics.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Unveiling the role of inorganic nanoparticles in Earth's biochemical evolution through electron transfer dynamics

This article explores the intricate interplay between inorganic nanoparticles and Earth's biochemical history, with a focus on their electron transfer properties. It reveals how iron oxide and sulfide nanoparticles, as examples of inorganic nanoparticles, exhibit oxidoreductase activity similar to proteins. Termed "life fossil oxidoreductases," these inorganic enzymes influence redox reactions, detoxification processes, and nutrient cycling in early Earth environments. By emphasizing the structural configuration of nanoparticles and their electron conformation, including oxygen defects and metal vacancies, especially electron hopping, the article provides a foundation for understanding inorganic enzyme mechanisms. This approach, rooted in physics, underscores that life's origin and evolution are governed by electron transfer principles within the framework of chemical equilibrium. Today, these nanoparticles serve as vital biocatalysts in natural ecosystems, participating in critical reactions for ecosystem health. The research highlights their enduring impact on Earth's history, shaping ecosystems and interacting with protein metal centers through shared electron transfer dynamics, offering insights into early life processes and adaptations.

Immunoanalytical Detection of Conserved Peptides: Refining the Universe of Biomarker Targets in Planetary Exploration

Ancient peptides are remnants of early biochemistry that continue to play pivotal roles in current proteins. They are simple molecules yet complex enough to exhibit independent functions, being products of an evolved biochemistry at the interface of life and nonlife. Their adsorption to minerals may contribute to their stabilization and preservation over time. To investigate the feasibility of conserved peptide sequences and structures as target biomarkers for the search for life on Mars or other planetary bodies, we conducted a bioinformatics selection of well-conserved ancient peptides and produced polyclonal antibodies for their detection using fluorescence microarray immunoassays. Additionally, we explored how adsorbing peptides to Mars-representative minerals to form organomineral complexes could affect their immunological detection. The results demonstrated that the selected peptides exhibited autonomous folding, with some of them regaining their structure, even after denaturation. Furthermore, their cognate antibodies detected their conformational features regardless of amino acid sequences, thereby broadening the spectrum of target peptide sequences. While certain antibodies displayed unspecific binding to bare minerals, we validated that peptide-mineral complexes can be detected using sandwich immunoassays, as confirmed through desorption and competitive assays. Consequently, we conclude that the diversity of peptide sequences and structures suitable for use as target biomarkers in astrobiology can be constrained to a few well conserved sets, and they can be detected even if they are adsorbed in organomineral complexes.

A self-sustaining serpentinization mega-engine feeds the fougerite nanoengines implicated in the emergence of guided metabolism

The demonstration by Ivan Barnes et al. that the serpentinization of fresh Alpine-type ultramafic rocks results in the exhalation of hot alkaline fluids is foundational to the submarine alkaline vent theory (AVT) for life's emergence to its 'improbable' thermodynamic state. In AVT, such alkaline fluids ≤ 150°C, bearing H2 > CH4 > HS--generated and driven convectively by a serpentinizing exothermic mega-engine operating in the ultramafic crust-exhale into the iron-rich, CO2> > > NO3--bearing Hadean ocean to result in hydrothermal precipitate mounds comprising macromolecular ferroferric-carbonate oxyhydroxide and minor sulfide. As the nanocrystalline minerals fougerite/green rust and mackinawite (FeS), they compose the spontaneously precipitated inorganic membranes that keep the highly contrasting solutions apart, thereby maintaining redox and pH disequilibria. They do so in the form of fine chimneys and chemical gardens. The same disequilibria drive the reduction of CO2 to HCOO- or CO, and the oxidation of CH4 to a methyl group-the two products reacting to form acetate in a sequence antedating the 'energy-producing' acetyl coenzyme-A pathway. Fougerite is a 2D-layered mineral in which the hydrous interlayers themselves harbor 2D solutions, in effect constricted to ~ 1D by preferentially directed electron hopping/tunneling, and proton Gröthuss 'bucket-brigading' when subject to charge. As a redox-driven nanoengine or peristaltic pump, fougerite forces the ordered reduction of nitrate to ammonium, the amination of pyruvate and oxalate to alanine and glycine, and their condensation to short peptides. In turn, these peptides have the flexibility to sequester the founding inorganic iron oxyhydroxide, sulfide, and pyrophosphate clusters, to produce metal- and phosphate-dosed organic films and cells. As the feed to the hydrothermal mound fails, the only equivalent sustenance on offer to the first autotrophs is the still mildly serpentinizing upper crust beneath. While the conditions here are very much less bountiful, they do offer the similar feed and disequilibria the survivors are accustomed to. Sometime during this transition, a replicating non-ribosomal guidance system is discovered to provide the rules to take on the incrementally changing surroundings. The details of how these replicating apparatuses emerged are the hard problem, but by doing so the progenote archaea and bacteria could begin to colonize what would become the deep biosphere. Indeed, that the anaerobic nitrate-respiring methanotrophic archaea and the deep-branching Acetothermia presently comprise a portion of that microbiome occupying serpentinizing rocks offers circumstantial support for this notion. However, the inescapable, if jarring conclusion is drawn that, absent fougerite/green rust, there would be no structured channelway to life.

Peptides before and during the nucleotide world: an origins story emphasizing cooperation between proteins and nucleic acids

Recent developments in Origins of Life research have focused on substantiating the narrative of an abiotic emergence of nucleic acids from organic molecules of low molecular weight, a paradigm that typically sidelines the roles of peptides. Nevertheless, the simple synthesis of amino acids, the facile nature of their activation and condensation, their ability to recognize metals and cofactors and their remarkable capacity to self-assemble make peptides (and their analogues) favourable candidates for one of the earliest functional polymers. In this mini-review, we explore the ramifications of this hypothesis. Diverse lines of research in molecular biology, bioinformatics, geochemistry, biophysics and astrobiology provide clues about the progression and early evolution of proteins, and lend credence to the idea that early peptides served many central prebiotic roles before they were encodable by a polynucleotide template, in a putative 'peptide-polynucleotide stage'. For example, early peptides and mini-proteins could have served as catalysts, compartments and structural hubs. In sum, we shed light on the role of early peptides and small proteins before and during the nucleotide world, in which nascent life fully grasped the potential of primordial proteins, and which has left an imprint on the idiosyncratic properties of extant proteins.

What are the inorganic nanozymes? Artificial or inorganic enzymes!

The research on inorganic nanozymes remains very active since the first paper on the “intrinsic peroxidase-like properties of ferromagnetic nanoparticles” was published in Nature Nanotechnology in 2007. However, there is...

The "Water Problem"(sic), the Illusory Pond and Life's Submarine Emergence-A Review

The assumption that there was a "water problem" at the emergence of life-that the Hadean Ocean was simply too wet and salty for life to have emerged in it-is here subjected to geological and experimental reality checks. The "warm little pond" that would take the place of the submarine alkaline vent theory (AVT), as recently extolled in the journal Nature, flies in the face of decades of geological, microbiological and evolutionary research and reasoning. To the present author, the evidence refuting the warm little pond scheme is overwhelming given the facts that (i) the early Earth was a water world, (ii) its all-enveloping ocean was never less than 4 km deep, (iii) there were no figurative "Icelands" or "Hawaiis", nor even an "Ontong Java" then because (iv) the solidifying magma ocean beneath was still too mushy to support such salient loadings on the oceanic crust. In place of the supposed warm little pond, we offer a well-protected mineral mound precipitated at a submarine alkaline vent as life's womb: in place of lipid membranes, we suggest peptides; we replace poisonous cyanide with ammonium and hydrazine; instead of deleterious radiation we have the appropriate life-giving redox and pH disequilibria; and in place of messy chemistry we offer the potential for life's emergence from the simplest of geochemically available molecules and ions focused at a submarine alkaline vent in the Hadean-specifically within the nano-confined flexible and redox active interlayer walls of the mixed-valent double layer oxyhydroxide mineral, fougerite/green rust comprising much of that mound.

Quantifying Mineral-Ligand Structural Similarities: Bridging the Geological World of Minerals with the Biological World of Enzymes

Metal compounds abundant on Early Earth are thought to play an important role in the origins of life. Certain iron-sulfur minerals for example, are proposed to have served as primitive metalloenzyme cofactors due to their ability to catalyze organic synthesis processes and facilitate electron transfer reactions. An inherent difficulty with studying the catalytic potential of many metal compounds is the wide range of data and parameters to consider when searching for individual minerals and ligands of interest. Detecting mineral-ligand pairs that are structurally analogous enables more relevant selections of data to study, since structural affinity is a key indicator of comparable catalytic function. However, current structure-oriented approaches tend to be subjective and localized, and do not quantify observations or compare them with other potential targets. Here, we present a mathematical approach that compares structural similarities between various minerals and ligands using molecular similarity metrics. We use an iterative substructure search in the crystal lattice, paired with benchmark structural similarity methods. This structural comparison may be considered as a first stage in a more advanced analysis tool that will include a range of chemical and physical factors when computing mineral-ligand similarity. This approach will seek relationships between the mineral and enzyme worlds, with applications to the origins of life, ecology, catalysis, and astrobiology.

Six 'Must-Have' Minerals for Life's Emergence: Olivine, Pyrrhotite, Bridgmanite, Serpentine, Fougerite and Mackinawite

Life cannot emerge on a planet or moon without the appropriate electrochemical disequilibria and the minerals that mediate energy-dissipative processes. Here, it is argued that four minerals, olivine ([Mg>Fe]2SiO4), bridgmanite ([Mg,Fe]SiO3), serpentine ([Mg,Fe,]2-3Si2O5[OH)]4), and pyrrhotite (Fe(1-x)S), are an essential requirement in planetary bodies to produce such disequilibria and, thereby, life. Yet only two minerals, fougerite ([Fe2+6xFe3+6(x-1)O12H2(7-3x)]2+·[(CO2-)·3H2O]2-) and mackinawite (Fe[Ni]S), are vital-comprising precipitate membranes-as initial "free energy" conductors and converters of such disequilibria, i.e., as the initiators of a CO2-reducing metabolism. The fact that wet and rocky bodies in the solar system much smaller than Earth or Venus do not reach the internal pressure (≥23 GPa) requirements in their mantles sufficient for producing bridgmanite and, therefore, are too reduced to stabilize and emit CO2-the staple of life-may explain the apparent absence or negligible concentrations of that gas on these bodies, and thereby serves as a constraint in the search for extraterrestrial life. The astrobiological challenge then is to search for worlds that (i) are large enough to generate internal pressures such as to produce bridgmanite or (ii) boast electron acceptors, including imported CO2, from extraterrestrial sources in their hydrospheres.

Origin of Life: The Point of No Return

Origin of life research is one of the greatest scientific frontiers of mankind. Many hypotheses have been proposed to explain how life began. Although different hypotheses emphasize different initial phenomena, all of them agree around one important concept: at some point, along with the chain of events toward life, Darwinian evolution emerged. There is no consensus, however, how this occurred. Frequently, the mechanism leading to Darwinian evolution is not addressed and it is assumed that this problem could be solved later, with experimental proof of the hypothesis. Here, the author first defines the minimum components required for Darwinian evolution and then from this standpoint, analyzes some of the hypotheses for the origin of life. Distinctive features of Darwinian evolution and life rooted in the interaction between information and its corresponding structure/function are then reviewed. Due to the obligatory dependency of the information and structure subject to Darwinian evolution, these components must be locked in their origin. One of the most distinctive characteristics of Darwinian evolution in comparison with all other processes is the establishment of a fundamentally new level of matter capable of evolving and adapting. Therefore, the initiation of Darwinian evolution is the "point of no return" after which life begins. In summary: a definition and a mechanism for Darwinian evolution are provided together with a critical analysis of some of the hypotheses for the origin of life.

A Completely De Novo ATPase from Combinatorial Protein Design

Our understanding of biological chemistry is shaped by the observation that all life comes from other life-as Pasteur put it, omne vivum ex vivo. A key step in expanding our biochemical vocabulary is to recapitulate biogenic catalysis using non-natural sequences that did not arise from common ancestry. Here we describe an enzyme designed completely de novo that hydrolyzes ATP. This protein was designed to lack β-sheet structure and is competitively inhibited by magnesium, two traits that are unlike natural ATPases.

Cofactors as Molecular Fossils To Trace the Origin and Evolution of Proteins

Due to their early origin and extreme conservation, cofactors are valuable molecular fossils for tracing the origin and evolution of proteins. First, as the order of protein folds binding with cofactors roughly coincides with protein-fold chronology, cofactors are considered to have facilitated the origin of primitive proteins by selecting them from pools of random amino acid sequences. Second, in the subsequent evolution of proteins, cofactors still played an important role. More interestingly, as metallic cofactors evolved with geochemical variations, some geochemical events left imprints in the chronology of protein architecture; this provides further evidence supporting the coevolution of biochemistry and geochemistry. In this paper, we attempt to review the molecular fossils used in tracing the origin and evolution of proteins, with a special focus on cofactors.