The origin of the dark S1 state in carotenoids: a comprehensive model

Dynamic and Energetic Aspects of Carotenoids In-and-Around Model Lipid Membranes Revealed in Molecular Modelling

In contrast to plants, humans are unable to synthesise carotenoids and have to obtain them from diet. Carotenoids fulfil several crucial biological functions in the organism; however, due to poor solubility in water, their bioavailability from plant-based food is low. The processes of carotenoid absorption and availability in the human body have been intensively studied. The recent experimental findings concerning these processes are briefly presented in the introductory part of this review, together with a summary of such topics as carotenoid carriers, body transport and tissue delivery, to finally report on molecular-level studies of carotenoid binding by membrane receptors. The main message of the review is contained in the section describing computational investigations of carotenoid intercalation and dynamic behaviour in lipid bilayers. The relevance of these computational studies lies in showing the direct link between the microscopic behaviour of molecules and the characteristics of their macroscopic ensembles. Furthermore, studying the interactions between carotenoids and lipid bilayers, and certainly proteins, on the molecular- and atomic-level using computational methods facilitates the interpretation and explanation of their macroscopic properties and, hopefully, helps to better understand the biological functions of carotenoids.

Ultrafast excited-state dynamics of Luteins in the major light-harvesting complex LHCII

Carotenoid pigments are known to present a functional versatility when bound to light-harvesting complexes. This versatility originates from a strong correlation between a complex electronic structure and a flexible geometry that is easily tunable by the surrounding protein environment. Here, we investigated how the different L1 and L2 sites of the major trimeric light-harvesting complex (LHCII) of green plants tune the electronic structure of the two embedded luteins, and how this reflects on their ultrafast dynamics upon excitation. By combining molecular dynamics and quantum mechanics/molecular mechanics calculations, we found that the two luteins feature a different conformation around the second dihedral angle in the lumenal side. The s-cis preference of the lutein in site L2 allows for a more planar geometry of the π -conjugated backbone, which results in an increased degree of delocalization and a reduced excitation energy, explaining the experimentally observed red shift. Despite these remarkable differences, according to surface hopping simulations the two luteins present analogous ultrafast dynamics upon excitation: the bright S 2 state quickly decays (in ∼ 50 fs) to the dark intermediate S x , eventually ending up in the S 1 state. Furthermore, by employing two different theoretical approaches (i.e., Förster theory and an excitonic version of surface hopping), we investigated the experimentally debated energy transfer between the two luteins. With both approaches, no evident energy transfer was observed in the ultrafast timescale.

Relaxation dynamics of high-energy excited states of carotenoids studied by UV excitation and pump-repump-probe transient absorption spectroscopy

The excited states of carotenoids have been a subject of numerous studies. While a majority of these reports target the excited state dynamics initiated by the excitation of the S2 state, the upper excited state(s) absorbing in the UV spectral region (denoted as SUV) has been only scarcely studied. Moreover, the relation between the SUV and Sn, the final state of the well-known S1-Sn transition of carotenoids, remains unknown. To address this yet-unresolved issue, we compared the excited state dynamics of two carotenoids, namely, β-carotene and astaxanthin, after excitation of either the SUV or Sn state. The SUV state was excited directly by UV light, and the excitation of the Sn state was achieved via re-pumping the S1-Sn transition. The results indicated that direct SUV excitation produces an S1-Sn band that is significantly broader than that obtained after S2 excitation, most probably due to the generation of multiple S1 conformations produced by excess energy. No such broadening is observed if the Sn state is excited by the re-pump pulse. This shows that the Sn and SUV states are different, each initializing a specific relaxation pathway. We propose that the Sn state retains the coupled triplet pair character of the S1 state, while the SUV state is the higher state of Bu+ symmetry accessible by one-photon transition.

Transient "cis-Peak" Is Present in Excited-State Absorption of Central-cis Isomers of Carotenoids

Application of femtosecond time-resolved transient absorption spectroscopy on all-trans and central-cis isomers of two exemplary carotenoids, lutein and spirilloxanthin, performed at room and cryogenic temperatures in the spectral range expanded toward UV revealed new spectroscopic transient features for the cis isomers. Notably, particularly for the central-cis spirilloxanthin, a very distinct additional transient absorption band is observed on the short wavelength side of the main excited-state absorption band of the S₁ state, having the same temporal characteristics as the latter one. This band is absent in transient absorption spectra of all-trans isomers, suggesting it could be assigned to "transient cis-peak." Overall, the results show that the "transient" counterpart of the spectral marker of cis-isomers of carotenoids, or the so-called cis-peak, is detectable in the excited-state absorption spectrum and could be attributed to electronic transition from the S₁ state. This new transient spectral band could be very useful for spectroscopic experiments targeting the dynamics of carotenoid isomers and their severely distorted forms.

Triplet-driven chemical reactivity of β-carotene and its biological implications

The endoperoxides of β-carotene (βCar-EPOs) are regarded as main products of the chemical deactivation of ¹O₂ by β-carotene, one of the most important antioxidants, following a concerted singlet-singlet reaction. Here we challenge this view by showing that βCar-EPOs are formed in the absence of ¹O₂ in a non-concerted triplet-triplet reaction: ³O₂ + ³β-carotene → βCar-EPOs, in which ³β-carotene manifests a strong biradical character. Thus, the reactivity of β-carotene towards oxygen is governed by its excited triplet state. βCar-EPOs, while being stable in the dark, are photochemically labile, and are a rare example of nonaromatic endoperoxides that release ¹O₂, again not in a concerted reaction. Their light-induced breakdown triggers an avalanche of free radicals, which accounts for the pro-oxidant activity of β-carotene and the puzzling swap from its anti- to pro-oxidant features. Furthermore, we show that βCar-EPOs, and carotenoids in general, weakly sensitize ¹O₂. These findings underlie the key role of the triplet state in determining the chemical and photophysical features of β-carotene. They shake up the prevailing models of carotenoid photophysics, the anti-oxidant functioning of β-carotene, and the role of ¹O₂ in chemical signaling in biological photosynthetic systems. βCar-EPOs and their degradation products are not markers of ¹O₂ and oxidative stress but of the overproduction of extremely hazardous chlorophyll triplets in photosystems. Hence, the chemical signaling of overexcitation of the photosynthetic apparatus is based on a ³chlorophyll-³β-carotene relay, rather than on extremely short-lived ¹O₂.

Functionalization of a stable AIE-based hydrogen-bonded organic framework for white light-emitting diodes

Hydrogen-bonded organic frameworks (HOFs) have received tremendous attention in recent years due to the good designability. However, the pure organic nature of HOFs sometimes limits the application development and performance improvement. Functionalizing is an effective strategy to control and modulate material properties, which can achieve properties that cannot be achieved by a pristine material. Herein, a series of HOF-76⊃DSMI were synthesized through functionalizing the stable AIE-based HOF-76 by incorporating a red dye which complements the deficiency of the red component of HOF-76. Then, a single matrix white light-emitting diode (WLED) was fabricated by coating the HOF-76⊃DSMI material on a 460 nm blue LED with CIE chromaticity coordinates of (0.333, 0.329), a correlated colour temperature (CCT) of 5490 K and a colour rendering index (CRI) of 80.

We successfully fabricated a white light-emitting diode by coating functionalized AIE-based HOF-76 material on a 460 nm blue LED chip.

Structural Reconstruction of Optically Invisible State in a Single Molecule via Scanning Tunneling Microscope

Molecular dark states, participating in various energy- and electron-transfer processes, are typically beyond direct optical-spectroscopic measurements because of the forbidden transition dictated by the selection rule. In this work, we demonstrate a direct profile of the dark-state transition density of a single molecule on the subnanometer scale by using a scanning tunneling microscope. Our method allows one to resolve the four-lobe configuration in a 1 nm region for the example molecule. The current proposal will bring about a new methodology to study the single-molecule properties in electro-optical devices and light-assisted biological processes.

Broadband 2DES detection of vibrational coherence in the Sx state of canthaxanthin

The nonadiabatic mechanism that mediates nonradiative decay of the bright S₂ state to the dark S₁ state of carotenoids involves population of a bridging intermediate state, S_x, in several examples. The nature of S_x remains to be determined definitively, but it has been recently suggested that S_x corresponds to conformationally distorted molecules evolving along out-of-plane coordinates of the isoprenoid backbone near a low barrier between planar and distorted conformations on the S₂ potential surface. In this study, the electronic and vibrational dynamics accompanying the formation of S_x in toluene solutions of the ketocarotenoid canthaxanthin (CAN) are characterized with broadband two-dimensional electronic spectroscopy (2DES) with 7.8 fs excitation pulses and detection of the linear polarization components of the third-order nonlinear optical signal. A stimulated-emission cross peak in the 2DES spectrum accompanies the formation of S_x in <20 fs following excitation of the main absorption band. S_x is prepared instantaneously, however, with excitation of hot-band transitions associated with distorted conformations of CAN's isoprenoid backbone in the low frequency onset of the main absorption band. Vibrational coherence oscillation maps and modulated anisotropy transients show that S_x undergoes displacements from the Franck-Condon S₂ state along out-of-plane coordinates as it passes to the S₁ state. The results are consistent with the conclusion that CAN's carbonyl-substituted β-ionone rings impart an intramolecular charge-transfer character that frictionally slows the passage from S_x to S₁ compared to carotenoids lacking carbonyl substitution. Despite the longer lifetime, the S₁ state of CAN is formed with retention of vibrational coherence after passing through a conical intersection seam with the S_x state.

Photosynthetic Light-Harvesting (Antenna) Complexes-Structures and Functions

Chlorophylls and bacteriochlorophylls, together with carotenoids, serve, noncovalently bound to specific apoproteins, as principal light-harvesting and energy-transforming pigments in photosynthetic organisms. In recent years, enormous progress has been achieved in the elucidation of structures and functions of light-harvesting (antenna) complexes, photosynthetic reaction centers and even entire photosystems. It is becoming increasingly clear that light-harvesting complexes not only serve to enlarge the absorption cross sections of the respective reaction centers but are vitally important in short- and long-term adaptation of the photosynthetic apparatus and regulation of the energy-transforming processes in response to external and internal conditions. Thus, the wide variety of structural diversity in photosynthetic antenna “designs” becomes conceivable. It is, however, common for LHCs to form trimeric (or multiples thereof) structures. We propose a simple, tentative explanation of the trimer issue, based on the 2D world created by photosynthetic membrane systems.

Solvent-Dependent Characterization of Fucoxanthin through 2D Electronic Spectroscopy Reveals New Details on the Intramolecular Charge-Transfer State Dynamics

The electronic state manifolds of carotenoids and their relaxation dynamics are the object of intense investigation because most of the subtle details regulating their photophysics are still unknown. In order to contribute to this quest, here, we present a solvent-dependent 2D Electronic Spectroscopy (2DES) characterization of fucoxanthin, a carbonyl carotenoid involved in the light-harvesting process of brown algae. The 2DES technique allows probing its ultrafast relaxation dynamics in the first 1000 fs after photoexcitation with a 10 fs time resolution. The obtained results help shed light on the dynamics of the first electronic state manifold and, in particular, on an intramolecular charge-transfer state (ICT), whose photophysical properties are particularly elusive given its (almost) dark nature.

Excitation quenching in chlorophyll-carotenoid antenna systems: 'coherent' or 'incoherent'

Plants possess an essential ability to rapidly down-regulate light-harvesting in response to high light. This photoprotective process involves the formation of energy-quenching interactions between the chlorophyll and carotenoid pigments within the antenna of Photosystem II (PSII). The nature of these interactions is currently debated, with, among others, 'incoherent' or 'coherent' quenching models (or a combination of the two) suggested by a range of time-resolved spectroscopic measurements. In 'incoherent quenching', energy is transferred from a chlorophyll to a carotenoid and is dissipated due to the intrinsically short excitation lifetime of the latter. 'Coherent quenching' would arise from the quantum mechanical mixing of chlorophyll and carotenoid excited state properties, leading to a reduction in chlorophyll excitation lifetime. The key parameters are the energy gap, [Formula: see text] and the resonance coupling, J, between the two excited states. Coherent quenching will be the dominant process when [Formula: see text] i.e., when the two molecules are resonant, while the quenching will be largely incoherent when [Formula: see text] One would expect quenching to be energetically unfavorable for [Formula: see text] The actual dynamics of quenching lie somewhere between these limiting regimes and have non-trivial dependencies of both J and [Formula: see text] Using the Hierarchical Equation of Motion (HEOM) formalism we present a detailed theoretical examination of these excitation dynamics and their dependence on slow variations in J and [Formula: see text] We first consider an isolated chlorophyll-carotenoid dimer before embedding it within a PSII antenna sub-unit (LHCII). We show that neither energy transfer, nor the mixing of excited state lifetimes represent unique or necessary pathways for quenching and in fact discussing them as distinct quenching mechanisms is misleading. However, we do show that quenching cannot be switched 'on' and 'off' by fine tuning of [Formula: see text] around the resonance point, [Formula: see text] Due to the large reorganization energy of the carotenoid excited state, we find that the presence (or absence) of coherent interactions have almost no impact of the dynamics of quenching. Counter-intuitively significant quenching is present even when the carotenoid excited state lies above that of the chlorophyll. We also show that, above a rather small threshold value of [Formula: see text]quenching becomes less and less sensitive to J (since in the window [Formula: see text] the overall lifetime is independent of it). The requirement for quenching appear to be only that [Formula: see text] Although the coherent/incoherent character of the quenching can vary, the overall kinetics are likely robust with respect to fluctuations in J and [Formula: see text] This may be the basis for previous observations of NPQ with both coherent and incoherent features.

Strategies for Design of Potential Singlet Fission Chromophores Utilizing a Combination of Ground-State and Excited-State Aromaticity Rules

Singlet exciton fission photovoltaic technology requires chromophores with their lowest excited states arranged so that 2E(T1) < E(S1) and E(S1) < E(T2). Herein, qualitative theory and quantum chemical calculations are used to develop explicit strategies on how to use Baird's 4n rule on excited-state aromaticity, combined with Hückel's 4n + 2 rule for ground-state aromaticity, to tailor new potential chromophores for singlet fission. We first analyze the E(T1), E(S1), and E(T2) of benzene and cyclobutadiene (CBD) as excited-state antiaromatic and aromatic archetypes, respectively, and reveal that CBD fulfills the criteria on the state ordering for a singlet fission chromophore. We then look at fulvenes, a class of compounds that can be tuned by choice of substituents from Baird-antiaromatic to Baird-aromatic in T1 and S1 and from Hückel-aromatic to Hückel-antiaromatic in S0. The T1 and S1 states of most substituted fulvenes (159 of 225) are described by singly excited HOMO → LUMO configurations, providing a rational for the simultaneous tuning of E(T1) and E(S1) along an approximate (anti)aromaticity coordinate. Key to the tunability is the exchange integral (KH,L), which ideally is constant throughout the compound class, providing a constant ΔE(S1 - T1). This leads us to a geometric model for the identification of singlet fission chromophores, and we explore what factors limit the model. Candidates with calculated E(T1) values of ∼1 eV or higher are identified among benzannelated 4nπ-electron compound classes and siloles. In brief, it is clarified how the joint utilization of Baird's 4n and Hückel's 4n + 2 rules, together with substituent effects (electronic and steric) and benzannelation, can be used to tailor new chromophores with potential use in singlet fission photovoltaics.