1
|
Ratuski AS, Améndola L, Makowska IJ, Weary DM. Effects of temporary access to environmental enrichment on measures of laboratory mouse welfare. Sci Rep 2024; 14:15143. [PMID: 38956228 PMCID: PMC11219853 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-65480-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2024] [Accepted: 06/20/2024] [Indexed: 07/04/2024] Open
Abstract
Laboratory mice are typically housed in "shoebox" cages with limited opportunities to engage in natural behaviour. Temporary access to environments with increased space and complexity (playpens) may improve mouse welfare. Previous work by our group has shown that mice are motivated to access and use these environments, but it is unknown how other aspects of welfare are impacted. Female C57BL/6J, BALB/cJ, and DBA/2J mice (n = 21; 7 mice per strain) were housed in mixed-strain trios and given temporary access to a large playpen with their cage mates three times per week. Control mice (n = 21; 7 mice per strain) remained in their home cages. Home cage behaviour (development of stereotypic behaviour over time, aggression following cage-changing) and anxiety tests were used to assess how playpen access impacted welfare. Contrary to our predictions, we found increased time spent performing stereotypies in playpen mice; this difference may be related to negative emotional states, increased motivation to escape the home cage, or active coping strategies. Playpen access resulted in strain-dependent improvements in aggression and some measures of anxiety. Aggression was lower for C57BL/6J mice in the playpen treatment following cage changing than it was for C57BL/6J control mice, while playpen mice, and particularly the C57BL/6J strain, spent more time in the center of the open field test and produced fewer fecal boli during anxiety testing, supporting other research showing that strain differences play an important role in behaviour and stress resiliency.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A S Ratuski
- UBC Animal Welfare Program, Faculty of Land and Food Systems, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada.
| | - L Améndola
- UBC Animal Welfare Program, Faculty of Land and Food Systems, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - I J Makowska
- UBC Animal Welfare Program, Faculty of Land and Food Systems, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - D M Weary
- UBC Animal Welfare Program, Faculty of Land and Food Systems, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Iki S, Adachi I. Fearful snake pictures make monkeys pessimistic. iScience 2023; 26:107622. [PMID: 37664603 PMCID: PMC10474457 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2023.107622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2023] [Revised: 07/18/2023] [Accepted: 08/10/2023] [Indexed: 09/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Judgment bias is the cognitive tendency of animals experiencing negative (or positive) affect to expect undesirable (or favorable) outcomes in ambiguous situations. The lack of examination of judgment biases induced by ecologically relevant stimuli hampers our understanding of the adaptive role of these biases. We examined whether predator-related stimuli, i.e., pictures of snakes, induce a pessimistic judgment bias in Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata). Our subjects underwent a touchscreen-based Go/No-go judgment bias test. We found that the subjects were less likely and slower to make Go responses to ambiguous stimuli after viewing the snake pictures, indicating that pictures of snakes induce a pessimistic evaluation of ambiguous stimuli. In environments with high levels of threat, behavioral strategies that reduce risk-taking would be evolutionarily advantageous. Hence, an affective response system that lowers expectations of favorable outcomes in ambiguous situations after encountering threat-related stimuli would serve adaptive purposes, such as curbing excessive exploratory behavior.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sakumi Iki
- Center for the Evolutionary Origins of Human Behavior, Kyoto University, Inuyama, Aichi, Japan
- Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Ikuma Adachi
- Center for the Evolutionary Origins of Human Behavior, Kyoto University, Inuyama, Aichi, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Structural environmental enrichment and the way it is offered influence cognitive judgement bias and anxiety-like behaviours in zebrafish. Anim Cogn 2023; 26:563-577. [PMID: 36209454 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-022-01700-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2022] [Revised: 07/14/2022] [Accepted: 09/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/01/2022]
Abstract
Environmental enrichment in zebrafish generally reduces anxiety-related behaviours, improves learning in maze trials and increases health and biological fitness. However, certain types of enrichment or certain conditions induce the opposite effects. Therefore, it is essential to study the characteristics of environmental enrichment that modulate these effects. This study aims to investigate if structural environmental enrichment and the way it is offered influence cognitive judgement bias and anxiety-like behaviours in adult zebrafish. The fish were assigned to six housing manipulations: constant barren, constant enrichment, gradual gain of enrichment, gradual loss of enrichment, sudden gain of enrichment and sudden loss of enrichment. We then transposed the cognitive judgment bias paradigm, formerly used in studies on other animals to measure the link between emotion and cognition, to objectively assess the impact of these manipulations on the zebrafish's interpretation of ambiguous stimuli, considering previous experiences and related emotional states. We used two battery tests (light/dark and activity tests), which measured anxiety-related behaviours to check if these tests covariate with cognitive bias results. The fish with a sudden gain in enrichment showed a pessimistic bias (interpreted ambiguous stimuli as negative). In addition, the fish that experienced a sudden gain and a gradual loss in enrichment showed more anxiety-like behaviours than the fish that experienced constant conditions or a gradual gain in enrichment. The data provide some proof that structural environmental enrichment and the way it is presented can alter zebrafish's cognitive bias and anxiety-like behaviours.
Collapse
|
4
|
Herrera-Rivero M, Bohn L, Witten A, Jüngling K, Kaiser S, Richter SH, Stoll M, Sachser N. Transcriptional profiles in the mouse amygdala after a cognitive judgment bias test largely depend on the genotype. Front Mol Neurosci 2022; 15:1025389. [DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2022.1025389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2022] [Accepted: 10/04/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: The amygdala is crucial for emotional cognitive processing. Affective or emotional states can bias cognitive processes, including attention, memory, and decision-making. This can result in optimistic or pessimistic behaviors that are partially driven by the activation of the amygdala. The resulting emotional cognitive bias is a common feature of anxiety and mood disorders, both of which are interactively influenced by genetic and environmental factors. It is also known that emotional cognitive biases can be influenced by environmental factors. However, little is known about the effects of genetics and/or gene-environment interactions on emotional cognitive biases. We investigated the effects of the genetic background and environmental enrichment on the transcriptional profiles of the mouse amygdala following a well-established cognitive bias test.Methods: Twenty-four female C57BL/6J and B6D2F1N mice were housed either in standard (control) conditions or in an enriched environment. After appropriate training, the cognitive bias test was performed on 19 mice that satisfactorily completed the training scheme to assess their responses to ambiguous cues. This allowed us to calculate an “optimism score” for each mouse. Subsequently, we dissected the anterior and posterior portions of the amygdala to perform RNA-sequencing for differential expression and other statistical analyses.Results: In general, we found only minor changes in the amygdala’s transcriptome associated with the levels of optimism in our mice. In contrast, we observed wide molecular effects of the genetic background in both housing environments. The C57BL/6J animals showed more transcriptional changes in response to enriched environments than the B6D2F1N mice. We also generally found more dysregulated genes in the posterior than in the anterior portion of the amygdala. Gene set overrepresentation analyses consistently implicated cellular metabolic responses and immune processes in the differences observed between mouse strains, while processes favoring neurogenesis and neurotransmission were implicated in the responses to environmental enrichment. In a correlation analysis, lipid metabolism in the anterior amygdala was suggested to influence the levels of optimism.Conclusions: Our observations underscore the importance of selecting appropriate animal models when performing molecular studies of affective conditions or emotional states, and suggest an important role of immune and stress responses in the genetic component of emotion regulation.
Collapse
|
5
|
Espigares F, Martins RR, Oliveira RF. A Behavioural Assay to Investigate Judgment Bias in Zebrafish. Bio Protoc 2022; 12:e4327. [PMID: 35340287 PMCID: PMC8899554 DOI: 10.21769/bioprotoc.4327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2021] [Revised: 08/24/2021] [Accepted: 12/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2023] Open
Abstract
In this protocol, we describe for the first time a judgment bias paradigm to phenotype the way zebrafish assess ambiguous stimuli. We have developed and validated a protocol for a judgment bias test based on a Go/No-go task, and performed using a half radial maze. After a habituation phase, fish are trained to discriminate between two reference arms [positive (P) and negative (N)]. For this purpose, they experience a positive event (food reward in P), when presented with a specific location/color cue, and a negative event (chasing with net in N), when presented with a different location/color cue. Acquisition of the discrimination learning between P and N is revealed by the latencies to enter the experimental arms of the behavioral maze being significantly lower for the P arm than for the N arm. Once zebrafish are able to discriminate between P and N arms, their latency to enter other maze arms spatially located between P and N [(Near Positive (NP), Ambiguous (A) = half-way between P and N, and Near Negative (NN)] is analyzed. Latencies (L) to enter NP, A and NN maze arms are interpreted as indicating the individual expectancy to experience a reward/punishment on each of them. A judgment bias score (JBS) is calculated from the latencies to enter the P, N, and A arms for each fish [JBS = (LA-LP)*100/(LN-LP)], based on which fish can be classified into an optimistic/pessimistic axis. A JBS below 50 indicates that fish perceive the ambiguous stimulus as a positive one (optimistic bias), while JBS above 50 indicates that fish perceive the ambiguous stimulus as a negative one (pessimistic bias). However, for classification criteria, it could be advantageous to use the method of selecting extreme phenotypes (e.g., upper and lower quartiles of the JBS), since JBS in zebrafish falls into a bimodal distribution (unpublished data). Therefore, this protocol provides a unique, inexpensive, and effective alternative to other methods of measuring affective states in zebrafish that might be of great interest to a broad target audience and have a large number of applications. Graphic abstract: Flow chart of the judgment bias protocol in zebrafish.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Felipe Espigares
- Instituto Gulbenkian de Ciência, Rua da Quinta Grande 6, Oeiras 2780-156, Portugal
| | - Raquel R. Martins
- Instituto Gulbenkian de Ciência, Rua da Quinta Grande 6, Oeiras 2780-156, Portugal
| | - Rui F. Oliveira
- Instituto Gulbenkian de Ciência, Rua da Quinta Grande 6, Oeiras 2780-156, Portugal
- ISPA-Instituto Universitário, Rua Jardim do Tabaco 34, Lisboa 1149-041, Portugal
- Champalimaud Neuroscience Programme, Champalimaud Centre for the Unknown, Avenida Brasília, Lisboa 1400-038, Portugal
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Denommé MR, Mason GJ. Social Buffering as a Tool for Improving Rodent Welfare. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR LABORATORY ANIMAL SCIENCE : JAALAS 2022; 61:5-14. [PMID: 34915978 PMCID: PMC8786379 DOI: 10.30802/aalas-jaalas-21-000006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/23/2023]
Abstract
The presence of a conspecific can be calming to some species of animal during stress, a phenomenon known as social buffering. For rodents, social buffering can reduce the perception of and reaction to aversive experiences. With a companion, animals may be less frightened in conditioned fear paradigms, experience faster wound healing, show reduced corticosterone responses to novelty, and become more resilient to everyday stressors like cage-cleaning. Social buffering works in diverse ways across species and life stages. For example, social buffering may rely on specific bonds and interactions between individuals, whereas in other cases, the mere presence of conspecific cues may reduce isolation stress. Social buffering has diverse practical applications for enhancing rodent wellbeing (some of which can be immediately applied, while others need further development via welfare-oriented research). Appropriate social housing will generally increase rodents' abilities to cope with challenges, with affiliative cage mates being the most effective buffers. Thus, when rodents are scheduled to experience distressing research procedures, ensuring that their home lives supply high degrees of affiliative, low stress social contact can be an effective refinement. Furthermore, social buffering research illustrates the stress of acute isolation: stressors experienced outside the cage may thus be less impactful if a companion is present. If a companion cannot be provided for subjects exposed to out-of-cage stressors, odors from unstressed animals can help ameliorate stress, as can proxies such as pieces of synthetic fur. Finally, in cases involving conditioned fear (the learned expectation of harm), newly providing social contact during exposure to negative conditioned stimuli (CS) can modify the CS such that for research rodents repeatedly exposed to aversive stimuli, adding conspecific contact can reduce their conditioned fear. Ultimately, these benefits of social buffering should inspire the use of creative techniques to reduce the impact of stressful procedures on laboratory rodents, so enhancing their welfare.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Melanie R Denommé
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Georgia J Mason
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Guelph, Ontario, Canada
- Corresponding author. Email address:
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Lecorps B, Weary DM, von Keyserlingk MAG. Negative expectations and vulnerability to stressors in animals. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2021; 130:240-251. [PMID: 34454913 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.08.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2020] [Revised: 08/22/2021] [Accepted: 08/24/2021] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Humans express stable differences in pessimism that render some individuals more vulnerable to stressors and mood disorders. We explored whether non-human animals express stable individual differences in expectations (assessed via judgment bias tests) and whether these differences relate to susceptibility to stressors. Judgment bias tests do not distinguish pessimism from sensitivity to reinforcers; negative expectations are likely driven by a combination of these two elements. The available evidence suggests that animals express stable individual differences in expectations such that some persistently perceive ambiguous situations in a more negative way. A lack of research prevents drawing firm conclusions on how negative expectations affect responses to stressors, but current evidence suggests a link between negative expectations and the adoption of avoidance coping strategies, stronger responses to uncontrollable stressors and risk of mood-related disorders. We explore implications for animals living in captivity and for research using animals as models for human disorders.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin Lecorps
- Animal Welfare Program, Faculty of Land and Food Systems, 2357 Main Mall, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver BC V6T 1Z6, Canada
| | - Daniel M Weary
- Animal Welfare Program, Faculty of Land and Food Systems, 2357 Main Mall, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver BC V6T 1Z6, Canada
| | - Marina A G von Keyserlingk
- Animal Welfare Program, Faculty of Land and Food Systems, 2357 Main Mall, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver BC V6T 1Z6, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Espigares F, Abad-Tortosa D, Varela SAM, Ferreira MG, Oliveira RF. Short telomeres drive pessimistic judgement bias in zebrafish. Biol Lett 2021; 17:20200745. [PMID: 33726560 PMCID: PMC8086985 DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2020.0745] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2020] [Accepted: 02/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The role of telomerase reverse transcriptase has been widely investigated in the contexts of ageing and age-related diseases. Interestingly, decreased telomerase activities (and accelerated telomere shortening) have also been reported in patients with emotion-related disorders, opening the possibility for subjective appraisal of stressful stimuli playing a key role in stress-driven telomere shortening. In fact, patients showing a pessimistic judgement bias have shorter telomeres. However, in humans the evidence for this is correlational and the causal directionality between pessimism and telomere shortening has not been established experimentally yet. We have developed and validated a judgement bias experimental paradigm to measure subjective evaluations of ambiguous stimuli in zebrafish. This behavioural assay allows classification of individuals in an optimistic-pessimistic dimension (i.e. from individuals that consistently evaluate ambiguous stimuli as negative to others that perceive them as positive). Using this behavioural paradigm we found that telomerase-deficient zebrafish (tert-/-) were more pessimistic in response to ambiguous stimuli than wild-type zebrafish. The fact that individuals with constitutive shorter telomeres have pessimistic behaviours demonstrates for the first time in a vertebrate model a genetic basis of judgement bias.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- F. Espigares
- Instituto Gulbenkian de Ciência, Rua da Quinta Grande 6, Oeiras 2780-156, Portugal
| | - D. Abad-Tortosa
- Department of Psychobiology, University of Valencia, Avenida Blasco Ibañez, 21, Valencia 46010, Spain
| | - S. A. M. Varela
- Instituto Gulbenkian de Ciência, Rua da Quinta Grande 6, Oeiras 2780-156, Portugal
| | - M. G. Ferreira
- Institute for Research on Cancer and Aging of Nice (IRCAN), INSERM, U1081 UMR7284 CNRS, 06107 Nice, France
| | - R. F. Oliveira
- Instituto Gulbenkian de Ciência, Rua da Quinta Grande 6, Oeiras 2780-156, Portugal
- ISPA-Instituto Universitário, Rua Jardim do Tabaco 34, Lisboa 1149-041, Portugal
- Champalimaud Neuroscience Programme, Champalimaud Centre for the Unknown, Avenida Brasília, Lisboa 1400-038, Portugal
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Alexander R, Aragón OR, Bookwala J, Cherbuin N, Gatt JM, Kahrilas IJ, Kästner N, Lawrence A, Lowe L, Morrison RG, Mueller SC, Nusslock R, Papadelis C, Polnaszek KL, Helene Richter S, Silton RL, Styliadis C. The neuroscience of positive emotions and affect: Implications for cultivating happiness and wellbeing. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2021; 121:220-249. [PMID: 33307046 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2019] [Revised: 11/10/2020] [Accepted: 12/06/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
This review paper provides an integrative account regarding neurophysiological correlates of positive emotions and affect that cumulatively contribute to the scaffolding for happiness and wellbeing in humans and other animals. This paper reviews the associations among neurotransmitters, hormones, brain networks, and cognitive functions in the context of positive emotions and affect. Consideration of lifespan developmental perspectives are incorporated, and we also examine the impact of healthy social relationships and environmental contexts on the modulation of positive emotions and affect. The neurophysiological processes that implement positive emotions are dynamic and modifiable, and meditative practices as well as flow states that change patterns of brain function and ultimately support wellbeing are also discussed. This review is part of "The Human Affectome Project" (http://neuroqualia.org/background.php), and in order to advance a primary aim of the Human Affectome Project, we also reviewed relevant linguistic dimensions and terminology that characterizes positive emotions and wellbeing. These linguistic dimensions are discussed within the context of the neuroscience literature with the overarching goal of generating novel recommendations for advancing neuroscience research on positive emotions and wellbeing.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca Alexander
- Neuroscience Research Australia, Randwick, Sydney, NSW, 2031, Australia; Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, 2601, Australia
| | - Oriana R Aragón
- Yale University, 2 Hillhouse Ave, New Haven, CT, 06520, USA; Clemson University, 252 Sirrine Hall, Clemson, SC, 29634, USA
| | - Jamila Bookwala
- Department of Psychology and Program in Aging Studies, Lafayette College, 730 High Road, Easton, PA, USA
| | - Nicolas Cherbuin
- Centre for Research on Ageing, Health, and Wellbeing, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, 2601, Australia
| | - Justine M Gatt
- Neuroscience Research Australia, Randwick, Sydney, NSW, 2031, Australia; School of Psychology, University of New South Wales, Randwick, Sydney, NSW, 2031, Australia
| | - Ian J Kahrilas
- Department of Psychology, Loyola University Chicago, 1032 W. Sheridan Road, Chicago, IL, 60660, USA
| | - Niklas Kästner
- Department of Behavioural Biology, University of Münster, Badestraße 13, 48149, Münster, Germany
| | - Alistair Lawrence
- Scotland's Rural College, King's Buildings, Edinburgh, EH9 3JG, United Kingdom; The Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, EH25 9RG, United Kingdom
| | - Leroy Lowe
- Neuroqualia (NGO), Truro, NS, B2N 1X5, Canada
| | - Robert G Morrison
- Department of Psychology, Loyola University Chicago, 1032 W. Sheridan Road, Chicago, IL, 60660, USA
| | - Sven C Mueller
- Department of Experimental Clinical and Health Psychology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium; Department of Personality, Psychological Assessment and Treatment, University of Deusto, Bilbao, Spain
| | - Robin Nusslock
- Department of Psychology and Institute for Policy Research, Northwestern University, 2029 Sheridan Road, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
| | - Christos Papadelis
- Jane and John Justin Neurosciences Center, Cook Children's Health Care System, 1500 Cooper St, Fort Worth, TX, 76104, USA; Laboratory of Children's Brain Dynamics, Division of Newborn Medicine, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Kelly L Polnaszek
- Department of Psychology, Loyola University Chicago, 1032 W. Sheridan Road, Chicago, IL, 60660, USA
| | - S Helene Richter
- Department of Behavioural Biology, University of Münster, Badestraße 13, 48149, Münster, Germany
| | - Rebecca L Silton
- Department of Psychology, Loyola University Chicago, 1032 W. Sheridan Road, Chicago, IL, 60660, USA; Institute for Innovations in Developmental Sciences, Northwestern University, 633 N. Saint Clair, Chicago, IL, 60611, USA.
| | - Charis Styliadis
- Neuroscience of Cognition and Affection group, Lab of Medical Physics, School of Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, 54124, Greece
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Whittaker AL, Barker TH. A consideration of the role of biology and test design as confounding factors in judgement bias tests. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2020.105126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
|
11
|
Lagisz M, Zidar J, Nakagawa S, Neville V, Sorato E, Paul ES, Bateson M, Mendl M, Løvlie H. Optimism, pessimism and judgement bias in animals: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2020; 118:3-17. [PMID: 32682742 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.07.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2020] [Revised: 06/29/2020] [Accepted: 07/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Just as happy people see the proverbial glass as half-full, 'optimistic' or 'pessimistic' responses to ambiguity might also reflect affective states in animals. Judgement bias tests, designed to measure these responses, are an increasingly popular way of assessing animal affect and there is now a substantial, but heterogeneous, literature on their use across different species, affect manipulations, and study designs. By conducting a systematic review and meta-analysis of 459 effect sizes from 71 studies of non-pharmacological affect manipulations on 22 non-human species, we show that animals in relatively better conditions, assumed to generate more positive affect, show more 'optimistic' judgements of ambiguity than those in relatively worse conditions. Overall effects are small when considering responses to all cues, but become more pronounced when non-ambiguous training cues are excluded from analyses or when focusing only on the most divergent responses between treatment groups. Task type (go/no-go; go/go active choice), training cue reinforcement (reward-punishment; reward-null; reward-reward) and sex of animals emerge as potential moderators of effect sizes in judgement bias tests.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Malgorzata Lagisz
- Evolution and Ecology Research Centre, School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, 2052, Australia
| | - Josefina Zidar
- The Department of Physics, Chemistry and Biology, IFM Biology, Linköping University, SE-581 83, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Shinichi Nakagawa
- Evolution and Ecology Research Centre, School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, 2052, Australia.
| | - Vikki Neville
- Centre for Behavioural Biology, Bristol Veterinary School, University of Bristol, Langford, BS40 5DU, United Kingdom
| | - Enrico Sorato
- The Department of Physics, Chemistry and Biology, IFM Biology, Linköping University, SE-581 83, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Elizabeth S Paul
- Centre for Behavioural Biology, Bristol Veterinary School, University of Bristol, Langford, BS40 5DU, United Kingdom
| | - Melissa Bateson
- Centre for Behaviour and Evolution, Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE2 4HH, United Kingdom
| | - Michael Mendl
- Centre for Behavioural Biology, Bristol Veterinary School, University of Bristol, Langford, BS40 5DU, United Kingdom.
| | - Hanne Løvlie
- The Department of Physics, Chemistry and Biology, IFM Biology, Linköping University, SE-581 83, Linköping, Sweden
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Effects of different social experiences on emotional state in mice. Sci Rep 2020; 10:15255. [PMID: 32943726 PMCID: PMC7498458 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-71994-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2020] [Accepted: 08/25/2020] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
A comprehensive understanding of animals' emotions can be achieved by combining cognitive, behavioural, and physiological measures. Applying such a multi-method approach, we here examined the emotional state of mice after they had made one of three different social experiences: either a mildly "adverse", a "beneficial", or a "neutral" experience. Using a recently established touchscreen paradigm, cognitive judgement bias was assessed twice, once before and once after the respective experience. Anxiety-like behaviour was examined using a standardised battery of behavioural tests and faecal corticosterone metabolite concentrations were measured. Surprisingly, only minor effects of the social experiences on the animals' cognitive judgement bias and no effects on anxiety-like behaviour and corticosterone metabolite levels were found. It might be speculated that the experiences provided were not strong enough to exert the expected impact on the animals' emotional state. Alternatively, the intensive training procedure necessary for cognitive judgement bias testing might have had a cognitive enrichment effect, potentially countering external influences. While further investigations are required to ascertain the specific causes underlying our findings, the present study adds essential empirical data to the so far scarce amount of studies combining cognitive, behavioural, and physiological measures of emotional state in mice.
Collapse
|
13
|
Nguyen HAT, Guo C, Homberg JR. Cognitive Bias Under Adverse and Rewarding Conditions: A Systematic Review of Rodent Studies. Front Behav Neurosci 2020; 14:14. [PMID: 32116594 PMCID: PMC7029709 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2020.00014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2019] [Accepted: 01/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Cognitive bias refers to emotional influences on cognition and provides a cognitive measure of negativity- or positivity-bias through assessment of the behavioral responses to ambiguous stimuli. Thus, under negative conditions an animal is more likely to judge ambiguous stimuli as negative, and under positive conditions as positive. The transfer of past experiences to novel but similar situations is highly adaptive, as it allows the animal to anticipate on the most likely outcome of the ambiguous cues. Methods: We conducted a systematic review to summarize the current state of evidence on cognitive bias in rodents under adverse and rewarding or supportive conditions. Results: In total 20 studies were identified, in which auditory, spatial, tactile, or visual tasks were used. Stressed rodents generally made fewer positive responses than their non-stressed conspecifics. Housing enrichment made rodents more positive in anticipation of ambiguous cues. Ethanol seeking rats generalized the ambiguous cues to sucrose and less to ethanol if sucrose was available. Amphetamine, fluoxetine, and ketamine shifted the bias toward positivity, while reboxetine elevated negative bias. Conclusion: The auditory tasks have been most extensively validated, followed by the tactile and spatial tasks, and finally the visual tasks. The tactile and spatial tasks use latency as readout, which is sensitive to confounding factors. It is yet uncertain whether spatial tasks measure cognitive bias. Across all tasks, with some exceptions, rodents exposed to stress show less positivity-bias when exposed to ambiguous cues, whereas rodents exposed to rewarding substances or treated with antidepressant drugs are biased toward reward. Considering the methodological heterogeneity and risk of bias, the present data should be interpreted with caution.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ho A T Nguyen
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition, and Behavior, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, Netherlands
| | - Chao Guo
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition, and Behavior, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, Netherlands
| | - Judith R Homberg
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition, and Behavior, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Neville V, Nakagawa S, Zidar J, Paul ES, Lagisz M, Bateson M, Løvlie H, Mendl M. Pharmacological manipulations of judgement bias: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2020; 108:269-286. [PMID: 31747552 PMCID: PMC6966323 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2019] [Revised: 11/13/2019] [Accepted: 11/13/2019] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Validated measures of animal affect are crucial to research spanning numerous disciplines. Judgement bias, which assesses decision-making under ambiguity, is a promising measure of animal affect. One way of validating this measure is to administer drugs with affect-altering properties in humans to non-human animals and determine whether the predicted judgement biases are observed. We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis using data from 20 published research articles that use this approach, from which 557 effect sizes were extracted. Pharmacological manipulations overall altered judgement bias at the probe cues as predicted. However, there were several moderating factors including the neurobiological target of the drug, whether the drug induced a relatively positive or negative affective state in humans, dosage, and the presented cue. This may partially reflect interference from adverse effects of the drug which should be considered when interpreting results. Thus, the overall pattern of change in animal judgement bias appears to reflect the affect-altering properties of drugs in humans, and hence may be a valuable measure of animal affective valence.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Vikki Neville
- Centre for Behavioural Biology, Bristol Veterinary School, University of Bristol, Langford BS40 5DU, United Kingdom.
| | - Shinichi Nakagawa
- Evolution and Ecology Research Centre, School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - Josefina Zidar
- The Department of Physics, Chemistry and Biology, IFM Biology, Linköping University, SE-581 83 Linköping, Sweden
| | - Elizabeth S Paul
- Centre for Behavioural Biology, Bristol Veterinary School, University of Bristol, Langford BS40 5DU, United Kingdom
| | - Malgorzata Lagisz
- Evolution and Ecology Research Centre, School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - Melissa Bateson
- Institute of Neuroscience and Centre for Behaviour and Evolution, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4HH, United Kingdom
| | - Hanne Løvlie
- The Department of Physics, Chemistry and Biology, IFM Biology, Linköping University, SE-581 83 Linköping, Sweden
| | - Michael Mendl
- Centre for Behavioural Biology, Bristol Veterinary School, University of Bristol, Langford BS40 5DU, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Krakenberg V, von Kortzfleisch VT, Kaiser S, Sachser N, Richter SH. Differential Effects of Serotonin Transporter Genotype on Anxiety-Like Behavior and Cognitive Judgment Bias in Mice. Front Behav Neurosci 2019; 13:263. [PMID: 31849623 PMCID: PMC6902087 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2019.00263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2019] [Accepted: 11/19/2019] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
In humans, the short allele of a common polymorphism in the serotonin transporter (5-HTT) gene is associated with a higher risk to develop depression and anxiety disorders. Furthermore, individuals carrying this allele are characterized by negative judgment biases, as they tend to interpret ambiguous information in a more pessimistic way. 5-HTT knockout mice, lacking the 5-HTT gene either homo- or heterozygously, provide a widely used model organism for the study of symptoms related to human anxiety disorders. In the present study, we aimed to prove the anxiety-like phenotype of the 5-HTT mouse model, and to investigate whether 5-HTT genotype also causes differences in judgment bias. While our results confirm that homozygous 5-HTT knockout mice display highest levels of anxiety-like behavior, it was decreased in heterozygous mice. Against our expectations, we did not detect differences in the animals’ judgment bias. These results indicate that at least in mice the association between 5-HTT genotype and judgment bias is not straightforward and that other factors, including multiple genes as well as environmental influences, are implicated in the modulation of judgment biases. More research is needed to gain further insights into their function as potential endophenotypes for psychopathology.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Viktoria Krakenberg
- Department of Behavioural Biology, University of Münster, Münster, Germany.,Otto Creutzfeldt Center for Cognitive and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Vanessa Tabea von Kortzfleisch
- Department of Behavioural Biology, University of Münster, Münster, Germany.,Otto Creutzfeldt Center for Cognitive and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Sylvia Kaiser
- Department of Behavioural Biology, University of Münster, Münster, Germany.,Otto Creutzfeldt Center for Cognitive and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Norbert Sachser
- Department of Behavioural Biology, University of Münster, Münster, Germany.,Otto Creutzfeldt Center for Cognitive and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - S Helene Richter
- Department of Behavioural Biology, University of Münster, Münster, Germany.,Otto Creutzfeldt Center for Cognitive and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Lawrence AB, Vigors B, Sandøe P. What Is so Positive about Positive Animal Welfare?-A Critical Review of the Literature. Animals (Basel) 2019; 9:ani9100783. [PMID: 31614498 PMCID: PMC6826906 DOI: 10.3390/ani9100783] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2019] [Revised: 10/03/2019] [Accepted: 10/07/2019] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Positive animal welfare (PAW) is thought to have come about as a response to there being too much of a focus on avoiding negatives in animal welfare science. However, despite its development over the last 10 years, it is not clear what it adds to the study of animal welfare. To clarify this, we conduct a review of the literature on PAW. We aim to identify the characteristic features of PAW and to show how PAW connects to the wider literature on animal welfare. We find that the PAW literature is characterised by four features: (1) positive emotions which highlights the capacity of animals to experience positive emotions; (2) positive affective engagement which seeks to create a link between positive emotions and behaviours animals are motivated to engage in; (3) quality of life which acts to give PAW a role in defining an appropriate balance of positives over negatives and; (4) happiness which brings a full life perspective to PAW. While the first two are already well situated in animal welfare studies the two last points open research agendas about aggregation of different aspects of PAW and how earlier experiences affect animals’ ability to have well-rounded lives. Abstract It is claimed that positive animal welfare (PAW) developed over the last decade in reaction to animal welfare focusing too much on avoiding negatives. However, it remains unclear what PAW adds to the animal welfare literature and to what extent its ideas are new. Through a critical review of the PAW literature, we aim to separate different aspects of PAW and situate it in relation to the traditional animal welfare literature. We find that the core PAW literature is small (n = 10 papers) but links to wider areas of current research interest. The PAW literature is defined by four features: (1) positive emotions which is arguably the most widely acknowledged; (2) positive affective engagement which serves to functionally link positive emotions to goal-directed behavior; (3) quality of life which serves to situate PAW within the context of finding the right balance of positives over negatives; (4) happiness which brings a full life perspective to PAW. While the two first points are already part of welfare research going back decades, the two latter points could be linked to more recent research agendas concerning aggregation and how specific events may affect the ability of animals to make the best of their lives.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alistair B Lawrence
- Scotland's Rural College (SRUC), West Mains Road, Edinburgh EH9 3RG, UK.
- Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Penicuik EH25 9RG, UK.
| | - Belinda Vigors
- Scotland's Rural College (SRUC), West Mains Road, Edinburgh EH9 3RG, UK.
| | - Peter Sandøe
- Department of Food and Resource Economics, University of Copenhagen, 1958 Frederiksberg C, Denmark.
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Copenhagen, 1870 Frederiksberg C, Denmark.
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Tanner L, Single AB. Animal Models Reflecting Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease and Related Respiratory Disorders: Translating Pre-Clinical Data into Clinical Relevance. J Innate Immun 2019; 12:203-225. [PMID: 31527372 PMCID: PMC7265725 DOI: 10.1159/000502489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2019] [Revised: 07/25/2019] [Accepted: 07/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) affects the lives of an ever-growing number of people worldwide. The lack of understanding surrounding the pathophysiology of the disease and its progression has led to COPD becoming the third leading cause of death worldwide. COPD is incurable, with current treatments only addressing associated symptoms and sometimes slowing its progression, thus highlighting the need to develop novel treatments. However, this has been limited by the lack of experimental standardization within the respiratory disease research area. A lack of coherent animal models that accurately represent all aspects of COPD clinical presentation makes the translation of promising in vitrodata to human clinical trials exceptionally challenging. Here, we review current knowledge within the COPD research field, with a focus on current COPD animal models. Moreover, we include a set of advantages and disadvantages for the selection of pre-clinical models for the identification of novel COPD treatments.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lloyd Tanner
- Respiratory Medicine and Allergology, Department of Clinical Sciences Lund, Lund University, Lund, Sweden,
| | - Andrew Bruce Single
- Respiratory Medicine and Allergology, Department of Clinical Sciences Lund, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Pharmacologically-induced stress has minimal impact on judgement and attention biases in sheep. Sci Rep 2019; 9:11446. [PMID: 31391491 PMCID: PMC6686049 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-47691-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2019] [Accepted: 07/22/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The emotional impact of exposure to stressors has not been well quantified in animals. We hypothesised that exogenous induction of stress in sheep would induce a pessimistic judgement bias and increased attention towards a threatening stimulus, suggestive of a negative emotional state. Stress was induced pharmacologically by administering synthetic adrenocorticotropic hormone. Judgement bias was assessed using a spatial go/no-go task after exposure to acute stress (one injection), chronic stress (21 daily injections) and acute-on-chronic stress (2 min isolation after 28 daily injections). Attention bias was assessed during chronic stress only (22 daily injections). In contrast with our hypotheses, there was no strong evidence that Synacthen administration altered judgement bias or attention bias at any stage of the experiment. Stressed sheep were more likely to approach ambiguous locations than saline Control animals, however, statistical evidence for models fitting treatment group was very weak. Overall, our findings suggest that elevated levels of cortisol may not fully explain changes to judgement bias observed in previous studies after environmentally-induced stress. Further studies are required to better understand which aspects of environmentally-induced stress alter judgement bias and to further validate cognitive methods of assessing affect in sheep.
Collapse
|
19
|
Roelofs S, Alferink FAC, Ipema AF, van de Pas T, van der Staay FJ, Nordquist RE. Discrimination learning and judgment bias in low birth weight pigs. Anim Cogn 2019; 22:657-671. [PMID: 31049725 PMCID: PMC6687882 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-019-01262-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2018] [Revised: 03/29/2019] [Accepted: 04/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Low birth weight (LBW) is a risk factor for cognitive and emotional impairments in humans. In pigs, LBW is a common occurrence, but its effects on cognition and emotion have received only limited scientific attention. To assess whether LBW pigs suffer from impaired cognitive and emotional development, we trained and tested 21 LBW and 21 normal birth weight (NBW) pigs in a judgment bias task. Judgment bias is a measure of emotional state which reflects the influence of emotion on an animal’s interpretation of ambiguous stimuli. Pigs were trained to perform a specific behavioral response to two auditory stimuli, predicting either a positive or negative outcome. Once pigs successfully discriminated between these stimuli, they were presented with intermediate, ambiguous stimuli. The pigs’ responses to ambiguous stimuli were scored as optimistic (performance of ‘positive’ response) or pessimistic (performance of ‘negative’ response). Optimistic or pessimistic interpretation of an ambiguous stimulus is indicative of a positive or negative emotional state, respectively. We found LBW pigs to require more discrimination training sessions than NBW pigs to reach criterion performance, suggesting that LBW causes a mild cognitive impairment in pigs. No effects of LBW on judgment bias were found, suggesting a similar emotional state for LBW and NBW pigs. This was supported by comparable salivary and hair cortisol concentrations for both groups. It is possible the enriched housing conditions and social grouping applied during our study influenced these results.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sanne Roelofs
- Behaviour and Welfare Group, Department of Farm Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Yalelaan 7, 3584 CL, Utrecht, The Netherlands.,Brain Center Rudolf Magnus, Utrecht University, Stratenum Building, Room STR5.203, Universiteitsweg 100, 3584 CG, Utrecht, The Netherlands.,Department of Clinical Studies, Swine Teaching and Research Center, New Bolton Center, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, 382 W Street Road, Kennett Square, PA, 19348, USA
| | - Floor A C Alferink
- Behaviour and Welfare Group, Department of Farm Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Yalelaan 7, 3584 CL, Utrecht, The Netherlands.,Study Programme Applied Biology, HAS University of Applied Sciences, Onderwijsboulevard 221, 5223 DE, 's Hertogenbosch, The Netherlands
| | - Allyson F Ipema
- Behaviour and Welfare Group, Department of Farm Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Yalelaan 7, 3584 CL, Utrecht, The Netherlands.,Adaptation Physiology Group, Wageningen University, De Elst 1, 6708 WD, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Tessa van de Pas
- Behaviour and Welfare Group, Department of Farm Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Yalelaan 7, 3584 CL, Utrecht, The Netherlands.,Department of Clinical Studies, Swine Teaching and Research Center, New Bolton Center, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, 382 W Street Road, Kennett Square, PA, 19348, USA
| | - Franz Josef van der Staay
- Behaviour and Welfare Group, Department of Farm Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Yalelaan 7, 3584 CL, Utrecht, The Netherlands.,Brain Center Rudolf Magnus, Utrecht University, Stratenum Building, Room STR5.203, Universiteitsweg 100, 3584 CG, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Rebecca E Nordquist
- Behaviour and Welfare Group, Department of Farm Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Yalelaan 7, 3584 CL, Utrecht, The Netherlands. .,Brain Center Rudolf Magnus, Utrecht University, Stratenum Building, Room STR5.203, Universiteitsweg 100, 3584 CG, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Webb LE, Veenhoven R, Harfeld JL, Jensen MB. What is animal happiness? Ann N Y Acad Sci 2019; 1438:62-76. [PMID: 30345570 PMCID: PMC7379717 DOI: 10.1111/nyas.13983] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2018] [Revised: 09/17/2018] [Accepted: 09/21/2018] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Today, we see a growing concern for the quality of life of nonhuman animals and an accompanying call for viable means of assessing how well animals thrive. Past research focused on minimizing negatives such as stress, while more recent endeavors strive to promote positives such as happiness. But what is animal happiness? Although often mentioned, the term lacks a clear definition. With recent advances in the study of animal emotion, current interest into positive rather than negative experiences, and the call for captive and domesticated animals to have good lives, the time is ripe to examine the concept of animal happiness. We draw from the human and animal literature to delineate a concept of animal happiness and propose how to assess it. We argue that animal happiness depends on how an individual feels generally-that is, a typical level of affect.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Laura E. Webb
- Animal Production Systems Group, Department of Animal ScienceWageningen University & ResearchWageningenthe Netherlands
| | - Ruut Veenhoven
- Erasmus University RotterdamErasmus Happiness Economics Research Organization (EHERO)Rotterdamthe Netherlands
- Optentia Research ProgramNorth‐West UniversityVanderbijlparkSouth Africa
| | - Jes Lynning Harfeld
- Department of Learning and Philosophy, Centre for Applied PhilosophyAalborg UniversityAalborgDenmark
| | - Margit Bak Jensen
- Department of Animal Science – Behaviour and Stress Biology GroupAarhus UniversityTjeleDenmark
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Alò R, Zizza M, Fazzari G, Facciolo RM, Canonaco M. Genistein Modifies Hamster Behavior and Expression of Inflammatory Factors following Subchronic Unpredictable Mild Stress. Neuroendocrinology 2019; 108:98-108. [PMID: 30408789 DOI: 10.1159/000495209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2018] [Accepted: 11/08/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Previous studies have pointed to the protective role of genistein against stress adaptations although neuromolecular mechanisms are not yet fully known. With this work, we evaluated the influence of such a phytoestrogen on hamster behavioral and molecular activities following exposure to subchronic unpredictable mild stress. METHODS The motor behaviors of hamsters (n = 28) were analyzed using elevated plus maze (EPM) test, hole board (HB) test, and forced swim test (FST). In addition, neurodegeneration events were assessed with amino cupric silver stain, while expression variations of tropomyosin receptor kinase B (TrkB), nuclear factor kappa-B1 (NF-κB1), and heat shock protein 70 (Hsp70) mRNAs were highlighted in limbic neuronal fields via in situ hybridization. RESULTS Genistein accounted for increased motor performances in EPM and HB tests but reduced immobility during FST, which were correlated with diminished argyrophilic signals in some limbic neuronal fields. Contextually, upregulated Hsp70 and TrkB mRNAs occurred in hippocampal (HIP) and hypothalamic neuronal fields. Conversely, diminished NF-κB1 levels were mainly obtained in HIP. CONCLUSION Hormonal neuroprotective properties of genistein corroborating anxiolytic and antidepressant role(s) through elevated expression levels of stress proteins and trophic factors may constitute novel therapeutic measures against emotional and stress-related motor performances.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Raffaella Alò
- Comparative Neuroanatomy Laboratory, Biology, Ecology and Earth Science Department, University of Calabria, Arcavacata di Rende, Italy,
| | - Merylin Zizza
- Comparative Neuroanatomy Laboratory, Biology, Ecology and Earth Science Department, University of Calabria, Arcavacata di Rende, Italy
| | - Gilda Fazzari
- Comparative Neuroanatomy Laboratory, Biology, Ecology and Earth Science Department, University of Calabria, Arcavacata di Rende, Italy
| | - Rosa Maria Facciolo
- Comparative Neuroanatomy Laboratory, Biology, Ecology and Earth Science Department, University of Calabria, Arcavacata di Rende, Italy
| | - Marcello Canonaco
- Comparative Neuroanatomy Laboratory, Biology, Ecology and Earth Science Department, University of Calabria, Arcavacata di Rende, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Avolio E, Fazzari G, Zizza M, De Lorenzo A, Di Renzo L, Alò R, Facciolo RM, Canonaco M. Probiotics modify body weight together with anxiety states via pro-inflammatory factors in HFD-treated Syrian golden hamster. Behav Brain Res 2019; 356:390-399. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2018.09.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2018] [Revised: 09/12/2018] [Accepted: 09/12/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
|
23
|
Barker TH, Kind KL, Groves PD, Howarth GS, Whittaker AL. Oestrous phase cyclicity influences judgment biasing in rats. Behav Processes 2018; 157:678-684. [PMID: 29653156 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2018.03.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2017] [Revised: 03/20/2018] [Accepted: 03/22/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The identification of cognitive bias has become an important measure of animal welfare. Negative cognitive biases develop from a tendency for animals to process novel information pessimistically. Judgment-bias testing is the commonplace methodology to detect cognitive biases. However, concerns with these methods have been frequently-reported; one of which being the discrepancy between male and female cognitive expression. The current study assessed the factors of social status and oestrus, to investigate whether oestrous cycle rotation, or subordination stress encouraged an increase in pessimistic responses. Female Sprague-Dawley rats (n = 24) were trained on an active-choice judgment bias paradigm. Responses to the ambiguous probe were recorded as optimistic or pessimistic. Oestrous phase was determined by assessing vaginal cytology in stained vaginal cell smears. Rats in the dioestrous phase and those rats considered to be subordinate demonstrated an increased percentage of pessimistic responses. However, no interaction between these factors was observed. This suggests that oestrous cyclicity can influence the judgment biases of female animals; a previously unreported finding. On this basis, researchers should be encouraged to account for both oestrous phase cyclicity and social status as an additional fixed effect in study design.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Timothy Hugh Barker
- School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Roseworthy Campus, Roseworthy, South Australia, Australia.
| | - Karen Lee Kind
- School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Roseworthy Campus, Roseworthy, South Australia, Australia
| | - Peta Danielle Groves
- School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Roseworthy Campus, Roseworthy, South Australia, Australia
| | - Gordon Stanley Howarth
- School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Roseworthy Campus, Roseworthy, South Australia, Australia; Gastroenterology Department, Children, Youth and Women's Health Service, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - Alexandra Louise Whittaker
- School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Roseworthy Campus, Roseworthy, South Australia, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Environmental complexity buffers against stress-induced negative judgement bias in female chickens. Sci Rep 2018; 8:5404. [PMID: 29599444 PMCID: PMC5876351 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-23545-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2017] [Accepted: 03/13/2018] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Cognitive processes are often biased by emotions. In humans, affective disorders are accompanied by pessimistic judgement, while optimistic judgement is linked to emotional stability. Similar to humans, animals tend to interpret ambiguous stimuli negatively after experiencing stressful events, although the long-lasting impact on judgement bias has rarely been investigated. We measure judgement bias in female chicks (Gallus gallus domesticus) after exposure to cold stress, and before and after exposure to additional unpredictable stressors. Additionally, we explore if brain monoamines can explain differences in judgement bias. Chicks exposed to cold stress did not differ in judgement bias compared to controls, but showed sensitivity to additional stressors by having higher motivation for social reinstatement. Environmental complexity reduced stress-induced negative judgement bias, by maintaining an optimistic bias in individuals housed in complex conditions even after stress exposure. Moreover, judgement bias was related to dopamine turnover rate in mesencephalon, with higher activity in individuals that had a more optimistic response. These results demonstrate that environmental complexity can buffer against negative effects of additive stress and that dopamine relates to judgement bias in chicks. These results reveal that both internal and external factors can mediate emotionally biased judgement in animals, thus showing similarities to findings in humans.
Collapse
|
25
|
Hintze S, Melotti L, Colosio S, Bailoo JD, Boada-Saña M, Würbel H, Murphy E. A cross-species judgement bias task: integrating active trial initiation into a spatial Go/No-go task. Sci Rep 2018; 8:5104. [PMID: 29572529 PMCID: PMC5865189 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-23459-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2017] [Accepted: 03/13/2018] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Judgement bias tasks are promising tools to assess emotional valence in animals, however current designs are often time-consuming and lack aspects of validity. This study aimed to establish an improved design that addresses these issues and can be used across species. Horses, rats, and mice were trained on a spatial Go/No-go task where animals could initiate each trial. The location of an open goal-box, at either end of a row of five goal-boxes, signalled either reward (positive trial) or non-reward (negative trial). Animals first learned to approach the goal-box in positive trials (Go) and to re-initiate/not approach in negative trials (No-go). Animals were then tested for responses to ambiguous trials where goal-boxes at intermediate locations were opened. The Go:No-go response ratio was used as a measure of judgement bias. Most animals quickly learned the Go/No-go discrimination and performed trials at a high rate compared to previous studies. Subjects of all species reliably discriminated between reference cues and ambiguous cues, demonstrating a monotonic graded response across the different cue locations, with no evidence of learning about the outcome of ambiguous trials. This novel test protocol is an important step towards a practical task for comparative studies on judgement biases in animals.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sara Hintze
- Division of Animal Welfare, University of Bern, Länggassstrasse 120, 3012, Bern, Switzerland. .,Division of Livestock Sciences, Department of Sustainable Agricultural Systems, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU), Gregor-Mendel-Strasse 33, 1180, Vienna, Austria.
| | - Luca Melotti
- Division of Animal Welfare, University of Bern, Länggassstrasse 120, 3012, Bern, Switzerland.,RG Behavioural Biology & Animal Welfare, Division of Behavioural Biology, University of Münster, Badestrasse 13, 48149, Münster, Germany
| | - Simona Colosio
- Division of Animal Welfare, University of Bern, Länggassstrasse 120, 3012, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Jeremy D Bailoo
- Division of Animal Welfare, University of Bern, Länggassstrasse 120, 3012, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Maria Boada-Saña
- Division of Animal Welfare, University of Bern, Länggassstrasse 120, 3012, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Hanno Würbel
- Division of Animal Welfare, University of Bern, Länggassstrasse 120, 3012, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Eimear Murphy
- Division of Animal Welfare, University of Bern, Länggassstrasse 120, 3012, Bern, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Jones S, Paul ES, Dayan P, Robinson ESJ, Mendl M. Pavlovian influences on learning differ between rats and mice in a counter-balanced Go/NoGo judgement bias task. Behav Brain Res 2017; 331:214-224. [PMID: 28549647 PMCID: PMC5480777 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2017.05.044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2017] [Revised: 05/12/2017] [Accepted: 05/17/2017] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Judgement bias tests of animal affect and hence welfare assume that the animal's responses to ambiguous stimuli, which may herald positive or negative outcomes, are under instrumental control and reflect 'optimism' or 'pessimism' about what will happen. However, Pavlovian control favours responses (e.g. approach or withdrawal) according to the valence associated with a stimulus, rather than the anticipated response outcomes. Typically, positive contexts promote action and approach whilst negative contexts promote inhibition or withdrawal. The prevalence of Go-for-reward (Go-pos) and NoGo-to-avoid-punishment (NoGo-neg) judgement bias tasks reflects this Pavlovian influence. A Pavlovian increase or decrease in activity or vigour has also been argued to accompany positive or negative affective states, and this may interfere with instrumental Go or NoGo decisions under ambiguity based on anticipated decision outcomes. One approach to these issues is to develop counter-balanced Go-pos/NoGo-neg and Go-neg/NoGo-pos tasks. Here we implement such tasks in Sprague Dawley rats and C57BL/6J mice using food and air-puff as decision outcomes. We find striking species/strain differences with rats achieving criterion performance on the Go-pos/NoGo-neg task but failing to learn the Go-neg/NoGo-pos task, in line with predictions, whilst mice do exactly the opposite. Pavlovian predispositions may thus differ between species, for example reflecting foraging and predation ecology and/or baseline activity rates. Learning failures are restricted to cues predicting a negative outcome; use of a more powerful air-puff stimulus may thus allow implementation of a fully counter-balanced task. Rats and mice achieve criterion faster than in comparable automated tasks and also show the expected generalisation of responses across ambiguous tones. A fully counter-balanced task thus offers a potentially rapidly implemented and automated method for assessing animal welfare, identifying welfare problems and areas for welfare improvement and 3Rs Refinement, and assessing the effectiveness of refinements.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Samantha Jones
- Centre for Behavioural Biology, School of Veterinary Science, University of Bristol, UK
| | - Elizabeth S Paul
- Centre for Behavioural Biology, School of Veterinary Science, University of Bristol, UK
| | - Peter Dayan
- Gatsby Computational Neuroscience Unit, University College London, UK
| | - Emma S J Robinson
- School of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience, University of Bristol, UK
| | - Michael Mendl
- Centre for Behavioural Biology, School of Veterinary Science, University of Bristol, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
Barker T, Bobrovskaya L, Howarth G, Whittaker A. Female rats display fewer optimistic responses in a judgment bias test in the absence of a physiological stress response. Physiol Behav 2017; 173:124-131. [DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2017.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2016] [Revised: 01/19/2017] [Accepted: 02/05/2017] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
|
28
|
Golebiowska J, Rygula R. Lesions of the Orbitofrontal but Not Medial Prefrontal Cortex Affect Cognitive Judgment Bias in Rats. Front Behav Neurosci 2017; 11:51. [PMID: 28377703 PMCID: PMC5359275 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2017.00051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2016] [Accepted: 03/07/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuroimaging studies in humans have recently shown that the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) mediate bias in the judgment of forthcoming events. In the present study, we sought to determine whether cognitive judgment bias (CJB) is also dependent on these prefrontal regions in non-human animals. For this, we trained a cohort of rats in the ambiguous-cue interpretation (ACI) paradigm, subjected them to excitotoxic lesions in the medial PFC (mPFC) and OFC, and tested the effects of neuronal loss within these regions on CJB. Comparison of the lesions' behavioral effects in the ACI paradigm revealed that neuronal loss within the OFC but not within the mPFC influences the interpretation of ambiguous cues by animals. Our findings demonstrate the specific involvement of the OFC in CJB in rats.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Joanna Golebiowska
- Affective Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, Department of Behavioral Neuroscience and Drug Development, Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of SciencesKrakow, Poland
| | - Rafal Rygula
- Affective Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, Department of Behavioral Neuroscience and Drug Development, Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of SciencesKrakow, Poland
| |
Collapse
|
29
|
Papciak J, Rygula R. Measuring Cognitive Judgement Bias in Rats Using the Ambiguous-Cue Interpretation Test. CURRENT PROTOCOLS IN NEUROSCIENCE 2017; 78:9.57.1-9.57.22. [PMID: 28046201 DOI: 10.1002/cpns.19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
An active-choice, operant, ambiguous-cue interpretation (ACI) paradigm is described that can be used for measuring cognitive judgement bias in rats. In this behavioral test, animals in an operant conditioning chamber are trained to press a lever to receive a food reward when a specific tone is presented, and to press another lever in response to a different tone to avoid punishment by an electric foot-shock. The tones, which serve as discriminative stimuli, acquire a positive or negative valence, and the training continues until the rats demonstrate a stable, correct discrimination between these two stimuli. The animals are tested after they have attained stable discrimination performance. The ambiguous-cue test consists of a discrimination task, as described above, but includes the presentation of additional tones with frequencies that are intermediate between the trained positive and negative tones. The lever-press response pattern to these ambiguous cues is considered an indicator of the rat's expectation of a positive or negative event; in other words, it is a measure of 'optimism' or 'pessimism', respectively. © 2017 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Justyna Papciak
- Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Department of Behavioral Neuroscience and Drug Development, Affective Cognitive Neuroscience Lab, Krakow, Poland
- Currently at School of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience, Faculty of Biomedical Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - Rafal Rygula
- Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Department of Behavioral Neuroscience and Drug Development, Affective Cognitive Neuroscience Lab, Krakow, Poland
| |
Collapse
|
30
|
|
31
|
Avolio E, Fazzari G, Mele M, Alò R, Zizza M, Jiao W, Di Vito A, Barni T, Mandalà M, Canonaco M. Unpredictable Chronic Mild Stress Paradigm Established Effects of Pro- and Anti-inflammatory Cytokine on Neurodegeneration-Linked Depressive States in Hamsters with Brain Endothelial Damages. Mol Neurobiol 2016; 54:6446-6458. [DOI: 10.1007/s12035-016-0171-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2016] [Accepted: 09/27/2016] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
|
32
|
Roelofs S, Boleij H, Nordquist RE, van der Staay FJ. Making Decisions under Ambiguity: Judgment Bias Tasks for Assessing Emotional State in Animals. Front Behav Neurosci 2016; 10:119. [PMID: 27375454 PMCID: PMC4899464 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2016.00119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2016] [Accepted: 05/25/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Judgment bias tasks (JBTs) are considered as a family of promising tools in the assessment of emotional states of animals. JBTs provide a cognitive measure of optimism and/or pessimism by recording behavioral responses to ambiguous stimuli. For instance, a negative emotional state is expected to produce a negative or pessimistic judgment of an ambiguous stimulus, whereas a positive emotional state produces a positive or optimistic judgment of the same ambiguous stimulus. Measuring an animal's emotional state or mood is relevant in both animal welfare research and biomedical research. This is reflected in the increasing use of JBTs in both research areas. We discuss the different implementations of JBTs with animals, with a focus on their potential as an accurate measure of emotional state. JBTs have been successfully applied to a very broad range of species, using many different types of testing equipment and experimental protocols. However, further validation of this test is deemed necessary. For example, the often extensive training period required for successful judgment bias testing remains a possible factor confounding results. Also, the issue of ambiguous stimuli losing their ambiguity with repeated testing requires additional attention. Possible improvements are suggested to further develop the JBTs in both animal welfare and biomedical research.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sanne Roelofs
- Department of Farm Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Behavior and Welfare Group (Formerly Emotion and Cognition Group), Utrecht University Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Hetty Boleij
- Department of Animals in Science and Society, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Division of Laboratory Animal Science, Utrecht UniversityUtrecht, Netherlands; Brain Center Rudolf Magnus, Utrecht UniversityUtrecht, Netherlands
| | - Rebecca E Nordquist
- Department of Farm Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Behavior and Welfare Group (Formerly Emotion and Cognition Group), Utrecht UniversityUtrecht, Netherlands; Brain Center Rudolf Magnus, Utrecht UniversityUtrecht, Netherlands
| | - Franz Josef van der Staay
- Department of Farm Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Behavior and Welfare Group (Formerly Emotion and Cognition Group), Utrecht UniversityUtrecht, Netherlands; Brain Center Rudolf Magnus, Utrecht UniversityUtrecht, Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
33
|
Role of Leptin and Orexin-A Within the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus on Anxiety-Like Behaviors in Hamsters. Mol Neurobiol 2016; 54:2674-2684. [DOI: 10.1007/s12035-016-9847-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2016] [Accepted: 03/09/2016] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
|
34
|
Bethell EJ. A “How-To” Guide for Designing Judgment Bias Studies to Assess Captive Animal Welfare. J APPL ANIM WELF SCI 2015; 18 Suppl 1:S18-42. [DOI: 10.1080/10888705.2015.1075833] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
|