1
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Cooper CE, Withers PC. Implications of heat exchange for a free-living endangered marsupial determined by non-invasive thermal imaging. J Exp Biol 2024; 227:jeb246301. [PMID: 38206870 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.246301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2023] [Accepted: 11/06/2023] [Indexed: 01/13/2024]
Abstract
We used thermal imagining and heat balance modelling to examine the thermal ecology of wild mammals, using the diurnal marsupial numbat (Myrmecobius fasciatus) as a model. Body surface temperature was measured using infra-red thermography at environmental wet and dry bulb temperatures of 11.7-29°C and 16.4-49.3°C, respectively; surface temperature varied for different body parts and with environmental temperature. Radiative and convective heat exchange varied markedly with environmental conditions and for various body surfaces reflecting their shapes, surface areas and projected areas. Both the anterior and posterior dorsolateral body areas functioned as thermal windows. Numbats in the shade had lower rates of solar radiative heat gain but non-solar avenues for radiative heat gain were substantial. Radiative gain was higher for black and lower for white stripes, but overall, the stripes had no thermal role. Total heat gain was generally positive (<4 to >20 W) and often greatly exceeded metabolic heat production (3-6 W). Our heat balance model indicates that high environmental heat loads limit foraging in open areas to as little as 10 min and that climate change may extend periods of inactivity, with implications for future conservation and management. We conclude that non-invasive thermal imaging is informative for modelling heat balance of free-living mammals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine E Cooper
- School of Molecular and Life Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, WA 6845, Australia
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Western Australia, Perth, WA 6009,Australia
| | - Philip C Withers
- School of Molecular and Life Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, WA 6845, Australia
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Western Australia, Perth, WA 6009,Australia
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2
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Turner WC, Périquet S, Goelst CE, Vera KB, Cameron EZ, Alexander KA, Belant JL, Cloete CC, du Preez P, Getz WM, Hetem RS, Kamath PL, Kasaona MK, Mackenzie M, Mendelsohn J, Mfune JK, Muntifering JR, Portas R, Scott HA, Strauss WM, Versfeld W, Wachter B, Wittemyer G, Kilian JW. Africa’s drylands in a changing world: Challenges for wildlife conservation under climate and land-use changes in the Greater Etosha Landscape. Glob Ecol Conserv 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.gecco.2022.e02221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
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3
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Takács P, Száz D, Vincze M, Slíz-Balogh J, Horváth G. Sunlit zebra stripes may confuse the thermal perception of blood vessels causing the visual unattractiveness of zebras to horseflies. Sci Rep 2022; 12:10871. [PMID: 35927437 PMCID: PMC9352684 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-14619-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2022] [Accepted: 06/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple hypotheses have been proposed for possible functions of zebra stripes. The most thoroughly experimentally supported advantage of zebra stripes is their visual unattractiveness to horseflies (tabanids) and tsetse flies. We propose here a plausible hypothesis why biting horseflies avoid host animals with striped pelages: in sunshine the temperature gradients of the skin above the slightly warmer blood vessels are difficult to distinguish from the temperature gradients induced by the hairs at the borderlines of warmer black and cooler white stripes. To test this hypothesis, we performed a field experiment with tabanids walking on a host-imitating grey test target with vessel-mimicking thin black stripes which were slightly warmer than their grey surroundings in sunshine, while under shady conditions both areas had practically the same temperature as demonstrated by thermography. We found that horseflies spend more time walking on thin black stripes than surrounding grey areas as expected by chance, but only when the substrate is sunlit. This is because the black stripes are warmer than the surrounding grey areas in the sun, but not in the shade. This is consistent with the flies' well-documented attraction to warmer temperatures and provides indirect support for the proposed hypothesis. The frequent false vessel locations at the numerous black-white borderlines, the subsequent painful bitings with unsuccessful blood-sucking attempts and the host's fly-repellent reactions enhance considerably the chance that horseflies cannot evade host responses and are swatted by them. To eliminate this risk, a good evolutionary strategy was the avoidance of striped (and spotted) host animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Péter Takács
- Department of Biological Physics, ELTE Eötvös Loránd University, Pázmány sétány 1, Budapest, 1117, Hungary
| | - Dénes Száz
- Department of Biological Physics, ELTE Eötvös Loránd University, Pázmány sétány 1, Budapest, 1117, Hungary
| | - Miklós Vincze
- MTA-ELTE Theoretical Physics Research Group, ELTE Eötvös Loránd University, Pázmány sétány 1, Budapest, 1117, Hungary
| | - Judit Slíz-Balogh
- Department of Biological Physics, ELTE Eötvös Loránd University, Pázmány sétány 1, Budapest, 1117, Hungary
| | - Gábor Horváth
- Department of Biological Physics, ELTE Eötvös Loránd University, Pázmány sétány 1, Budapest, 1117, Hungary.
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4
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Rubenstein DI, Feinstein LH. Bothersome Flies: How Free-Ranging Horses Reduce Harm While Maintaining Nutrition. Front Ecol Evol 2021. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2021.659570] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The horses of Shackleford Banks, NC, United States are harassed by many species of biting flies. Apart from being a nuisance, their bites can lead to blood loss and transmit disease. As a result, these horses tend to avoid areas where fly abundances are high. Like other free-ranging horse populations, environmental factors such as low wind speeds and high temperatures increase fly loads per horse. Similarly, coat color matters since darker horses attract more flies than lighter ones, especially on hot sunny days. Many horse populations reduce per capita fly loads by living in large groups or by bunching tightly together. Shackleford horses do so, too, but also use wind speed differences among habitats to modulate fly numbers. By adopting a systematic pattern of moving between habitats such that they only visit a habitat when wind speed is high enough to keep fly harassment to a tolerable level, they can avoid being bitten while continuing to forage. Typically, they begin the day foraging on the salt marshes where fly abundance is inherently low and are lowered further by faint early morning breezes. Later in the morning, horses move to grassy patches (swales) when increasing wind speed reduces fly landings there to levels found on the marshes. Later still, when wind speeds peak, horses begin foraging among the sand dunes. At this point wind speeds are high enough so that horses using any habitat will be minimally harassed by flies, thus enabling them to freely choose where to feed based on which habitat meets particular dietary needs for protein, energy and nutrients on any particular day. Hence, Shackleford horses follow the breeze to solve a challenging dilemma of maintaining a high nutritional plane without succumbing to fly harassment. Other free-ranging horses populations appear to have a more limited “either-or” choice of “bite or be bitten,” thus limiting their decision-making options.
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5
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Pereszlényi Á, Száz D, Jánosi IM, Horváth G. A new argument against cooling by convective air eddies formed above sunlit zebra stripes. Sci Rep 2021; 11:15797. [PMID: 34349136 PMCID: PMC8339008 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-95105-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2020] [Accepted: 07/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
There is a long-lasting debate about the possible functions of zebra stripes. According to one hypothesis, periodical convective air eddies form over sunlit zebra stripes which cool the body. However, the formation of such eddies has not been experimentally studied. Using schlieren imaging in the laboratory, we found: downwelling air streams do not form above the white stripes of light-heated smooth or hairy striped surfaces. The influence of stripes on the air stream formation (facilitating upwelling streams and hindering horizontal stream drift) is negligible higher than 1–2 cm above the surface. In calm weather, upwelling air streams might form above sunlit zebra stripes, however they are blown off by the weakest wind, or even by the slowest movement of the zebra. These results forcefully contradict the thermoregulation hypothesis involving air eddies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ádám Pereszlényi
- Department of Biological Physics, ELTE Eötvös Loránd University, Pázmány sétány 1, 1117, Budapest, Hungary.,Deutsches Meeresmuseum, Katharinenberg 14-20, 18437, Stralsund, Germany
| | - Dénes Száz
- Department of Biological Physics, ELTE Eötvös Loránd University, Pázmány sétány 1, 1117, Budapest, Hungary.,Department of Physics, ELTE Eötvös Loránd University, BDPK, 9700, Szombathely, Hungary
| | - Imre M Jánosi
- Department of Water and Environmental Policy, University of Public Service, Ludovika tér 1, 1083, Budapest, Hungary.,Max Planck Institute for Physics of Complex Systems, Nöthnitzer Strasse 38, 01187, Dresden, Germany
| | - Gábor Horváth
- Department of Biological Physics, ELTE Eötvös Loránd University, Pázmány sétány 1, 1117, Budapest, Hungary.
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6
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Hughes AE, Griffiths D, Troscianko J, Kelley LA. The evolution of patterning during movement in a large-scale citizen science game. Proc Biol Sci 2021; 288:20202823. [PMID: 33434457 PMCID: PMC7892415 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2020.2823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The motion dazzle hypothesis posits that high contrast geometric patterns can cause difficulties in tracking a moving target and has been argued to explain the patterning of animals such as zebras. Research to date has only tested a small number of patterns, offering equivocal support for the hypothesis. Here, we take a genetic programming approach to allow patterns to evolve based on their fitness (time taken to capture) and thus find the optimal strategy for providing protection when moving. Our ‘Dazzle Bug’ citizen science game tested over 1.5 million targets in a touch screen game at a popular visitor attraction. Surprisingly, we found that targets lost pattern elements during evolution and became closely background matching. Modelling results suggested that targets with lower motion energy were harder to catch. Our results indicate that low contrast, featureless targets offer the greatest protection against capture when in motion, challenging the motion dazzle hypothesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna E Hughes
- Department of Psychology, University of Essex, Wivenhoe House, Colchester CO4 3SQ, UK
| | | | - Jolyon Troscianko
- Centre for Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Penryn Campus, Penryn TR10 9FE, UK
| | - Laura A Kelley
- Centre for Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Penryn Campus, Penryn TR10 9FE, UK
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7
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Larison B, Kaelin CB, Harrigan R, Henegar C, Rubenstein DI, Kamath P, Aschenborn O, Smith TB, Barsh GS. Population structure, inbreeding and stripe pattern abnormalities in plains zebras. Mol Ecol 2020; 30:379-390. [PMID: 33174253 DOI: 10.1111/mec.15728] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2020] [Revised: 10/23/2020] [Accepted: 10/30/2020] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
One of the most iconic wild equids, the plains zebra occupies a broad region of sub-Saharan Africa and exhibits a wide range of phenotypic diversity in stripe patterns that have been used to classify multiple subspecies. After decades of relative stability, albeit with a loss of at least one recognized subspecies, the total population of plains zebras has undergone an approximate 25% decline since 2002. Individuals with abnormal stripe patterns have been recognized in recent years but the extent to which their appearance is related to demography and/or genetics is unclear. Investigating population genetic health and genetic structure are essential for developing effective strategies for plains zebra conservation. We collected DNA from 140 plains zebra, including seven with abnormal stripe patterns, from nine locations across the range of plains zebra, and analyzed data from restriction site-associated and whole genome sequencing (RAD-seq, WGS) libraries to better understand the relationships between population structure, genetic diversity, inbreeding, and abnormal phenotypes. We found that genetic structure did not coincide with described subspecific variation, but did distinguish geographic regions in which anthropogenic habitat fragmentation is associated with reduced gene flow and increased evidence of inbreeding, especially in certain parts of East Africa. Further, zebras with abnormal striping exhibited increased levels of inbreeding relative to normally striped individuals from the same populations. Our results point to a genetic cause of stripe pattern abnormalities, and dramatic evidence of the consequences of habitat fragmentation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brenda Larison
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA.,Center for Tropical Research, Institute of the Environment and Sustainability, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Christopher B Kaelin
- HudsonAlpha Institute for Biotechnology, Huntsville, AL, USA.,Department of Genetics, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Ryan Harrigan
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA.,Center for Tropical Research, Institute of the Environment and Sustainability, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | | | - Daniel I Rubenstein
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA
| | - Pauline Kamath
- School of Food and Agriculture, University of Maine, Orono, ME, USA
| | - Ortwin Aschenborn
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Namibia, Neudamm Windhoek, Namibia
| | - Thomas B Smith
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA.,Center for Tropical Research, Institute of the Environment and Sustainability, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Gregory S Barsh
- HudsonAlpha Institute for Biotechnology, Huntsville, AL, USA.,Department of Genetics, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
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8
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Chang JJ, Martin A, Du C, Pauls AM, Thuo M. Heat‐Free Biomimetic Metal Molding on Soft Substrates. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.202008621] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Julia J. Chang
- Iowa State UniversityDepartment of Materials Science and Engineering Ames IA 50014 USA
| | - Andrew Martin
- Iowa State UniversityDepartment of Materials Science and Engineering Ames IA 50014 USA
| | - Chuanshen Du
- Iowa State UniversityDepartment of Materials Science and Engineering Ames IA 50014 USA
| | - Alana M. Pauls
- Iowa State UniversityDepartment of Materials Science and Engineering Ames IA 50014 USA
| | - Martin Thuo
- Iowa State UniversityDepartment of Materials Science and Engineering Ames IA 50014 USA
- Micro-Electronics Research Centre Ames IA 50014 USA
- Iowa State UniversityDepartment of Electrical and Computer Engineering Ames IA 50014 USA
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9
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Chang JJ, Martin A, Du C, Pauls AM, Thuo M. Heat-Free Biomimetic Metal Molding on Soft Substrates. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2020; 59:16346-16351. [PMID: 32671888 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202008621] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Fabrication of bio-templated metallic structures is limited by differences in properties, processing conditions, packing, and material state(s). Herein, by using undercooled metal particles, differences in modulus and processing temperatures can be overcome. Adoption of autonomous processes such as self-filtration, capillary pressure, and evaporative concentration leads to enhanced packing, stabilization (jamming) and point sintering with phase change to create solid metal replicas of complex bio-based features. Differentiation of subtle differences between cultivars of the rose flower with reproduction over large areas shows that this biomimetic metal patterning (BIOMAP) is a versatile method to replicate biological features either as positive or negative reliefs irrespective of the substrate. Using rose petal patterns, we illustrate the versatility of bio-templated mapping with undercooled metal particles at ambient conditions, and with unprecedented efficiency for metal structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia J Chang
- Iowa State University, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Ames, IA, 50014, USA
| | - Andrew Martin
- Iowa State University, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Ames, IA, 50014, USA
| | - Chuanshen Du
- Iowa State University, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Ames, IA, 50014, USA
| | - Alana M Pauls
- Iowa State University, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Ames, IA, 50014, USA
| | - Martin Thuo
- Iowa State University, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Ames, IA, 50014, USA.,Micro-Electronics Research Centre, Ames, IA, 50014, USA.,Iowa State University, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Ames, IA, 50014, USA
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10
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Holleman GA, Hooge ITC, Kemner C, Hessels RS. The 'Real-World Approach' and Its Problems: A Critique of the Term Ecological Validity. Front Psychol 2020; 11:721. [PMID: 32425850 PMCID: PMC7204431 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2020] [Accepted: 03/25/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
A popular goal in psychological science is to understand human cognition and behavior in the 'real-world.' In contrast, researchers have typically conducted their research in experimental research settings, a.k.a. the 'psychologist's laboratory.' Critics have often questioned whether psychology's laboratory experiments permit generalizable results. This is known as the 'real-world or the lab'-dilemma. To bridge the gap between lab and life, many researchers have called for experiments with more 'ecological validity' to ensure that experiments more closely resemble and generalize to the 'real-world.' However, researchers seldom explain what they mean with this term, nor how more ecological validity should be achieved. In our opinion, the popular concept of ecological validity is ill-formed, lacks specificity, and falls short of addressing the problem of generalizability. To move beyond the 'real-world or the lab'-dilemma, we believe that researchers in psychological science should always specify the particular context of cognitive and behavioral functioning in which they are interested, instead of advocating that experiments should be more 'ecologically valid' in order to generalize to the 'real-world.' We believe this will be a more constructive way to uncover the context-specific and context-generic principles of cognition and behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gijs A. Holleman
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
- Department of Developmental Psychology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Ignace T. C. Hooge
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Chantal Kemner
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
- Department of Developmental Psychology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
- Brain Center, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Roy S. Hessels
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
- Department of Developmental Psychology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
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11
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Kojima T, Oishi K, Matsubara Y, Uchiyama Y, Fukushima Y, Aoki N, Sato S, Masuda T, Ueda J, Hirooka H, Kino K. Cows painted with zebra-like striping can avoid biting fly attack. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0223447. [PMID: 31581218 PMCID: PMC6776349 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0223447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2019] [Accepted: 09/20/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Experimental and comparative studies suggest that the striped coats of zebras can prevent biting fly attacks. Biting flies are serious pests of livestock that cause economic losses in animal production. We hypothesized that cows painted with black and white stripes on their body could avoid biting fly attacks and show fewer fly-repelling behaviors. Six Japanese Black cows were assigned to treatments using a 3 × 3 Latin-square design. The treatments were black-and-white painted stripes, black painted stripes, and no stripes (all-black body surface). Recorded fly-repelling behaviors were head throw, ear beat, leg stamp, skin twitch, and tail flick. Photo images of the right side of each cow were taken using a commercial digital camera after every observation and biting flies on the body and each leg were counted from the photo images. Here we show that the numbers of biting flies on Japanese Black cows painted with black-and-white stripes were significantly lower than those on non-painted cows and cows painted only with black stripes. The frequencies of fly-repelling behaviors in cows painted with black-and-white stripes were also lower than those in the non-painted and black-striped cows. These results thus suggest that painting black-and-white stripes on livestock such as cattle can prevent biting fly attacks and provide an alternative method of defending livestock against biting flies without using pesticides in animal production, thereby proposing a solution for the problem of pesticide resistance in the environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomoki Kojima
- Animal Husbandry Division, Aichi Agricultural Research Center, Nagakute, Aichi, Japan
- * E-mail:
| | - Kazato Oishi
- Laboratory of Animal Husbandry Resources, Division of Applied Biosciences, Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Yasushi Matsubara
- Animal Husbandry Division, Aichi Agricultural Research Center, Nagakute, Aichi, Japan
| | - Yuki Uchiyama
- Animal Husbandry Division, Aichi Agricultural Research Center, Nagakute, Aichi, Japan
| | - Yoshihiko Fukushima
- Animal Husbandry Division, Aichi Agricultural Research Center, Nagakute, Aichi, Japan
| | - Naoto Aoki
- Animal Husbandry Division, Aichi Agricultural Research Center, Nagakute, Aichi, Japan
| | - Say Sato
- Animal Husbandry Division, Aichi Agricultural Research Center, Nagakute, Aichi, Japan
| | - Tatsuaki Masuda
- Animal Husbandry Division, Aichi Agricultural Research Center, Nagakute, Aichi, Japan
| | - Junichi Ueda
- Animal Husbandry Division, Aichi Agricultural Research Center, Nagakute, Aichi, Japan
- Aichi Veterinary Association, Nagoya, Aichi, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Hirooka
- Laboratory of Animal Husbandry Resources, Division of Applied Biosciences, Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Katsutoshi Kino
- Animal Husbandry Division, Aichi Agricultural Research Center, Nagakute, Aichi, Japan
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12
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13
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Benefits of zebra stripes: Behaviour of tabanid flies around zebras and horses. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0210831. [PMID: 30785882 PMCID: PMC6382098 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0210831] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2018] [Accepted: 01/02/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Averting attack by biting flies is increasingly regarded as the evolutionary driver of zebra stripes, although the precise mechanism by which stripes ameliorate attack by ectoparasites is unknown. We examined the behaviour of tabanids (horse flies) in the vicinity of captive plains zebras and uniformly coloured domestic horses living on a horse farm in Britain. Observations showed that fewer tabanids landed on zebras than on horses per unit time, although rates of tabanid circling around or briefly touching zebra and horse pelage did not differ. In an experiment in which horses sequentially wore cloth coats of different colours, those wearing a striped pattern suffered far lower rates of tabanid touching and landing on coats than the same horses wearing black or white, yet there were no differences in attack rates to their naked heads. In separate, detailed video analyses, tabanids approached zebras faster and failed to decelerate before contacting zebras, and proportionately more tabanids simply touched rather than landed on zebra pelage in comparison to horses. Taken together, these findings indicate that, up close, striped surfaces prevented flies from making a controlled landing but did not influence tabanid behaviour at a distance. To counteract flies, zebras swished their tails and ran away from fly nuisance whereas horses showed higher rates of skin twitching. As a consequence of zebras’ striping, very few tabanids successfully landed on zebras and, as a result of zebras’ changeable behaviour, few stayed a long time, or probed for blood.
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14
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Horváth G, Pereszlényi Á, Száz D, Barta A, Jánosi IM, Gerics B, Åkesson S. Experimental evidence that stripes do not cool zebras. Sci Rep 2018; 8:9351. [PMID: 29921931 PMCID: PMC6008466 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-27637-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2018] [Accepted: 06/06/2018] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
There are as many as 18 theories for the possible functions of the stripes of zebras, one of which is to cool the animal. We performed field experiments and thermographic measurements to investigate whether thermoregulation might work for zebra-striped bodies. A zebra body was modelled by water-filled metal barrels covered with horse, cattle and zebra hides and with various black, white, grey and striped patterns. The barrels were installed in the open air for four months while their core temperature was measured continuously. Using thermography, the temperature distributions of the barrel surfaces were compared to those of living zebras. The sunlit zebra-striped barrels reproduced well the surface temperature characteristics of sunlit zebras. We found that there were no significant core temperature differences between the striped and grey barrels, even on many hot days, independent of the air temperature and wind speed. The average core temperature of the barrels increased as follows: white cattle, grey cattle, real zebra, artificial zebra, grey horse, black cattle. Consequently, we demonstrate that zebra-striped coats do not keep the body cooler than grey coats challenging the hypothesis of a thermoregulatory role of zebra stripes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gábor Horváth
- Department of Biological Physics, ELTE Eötvös Loránd University, H-1117, Budapest, Pázmány sétány 1, Hungary.
| | - Ádám Pereszlényi
- Department of Biological Physics, ELTE Eötvös Loránd University, H-1117, Budapest, Pázmány sétány 1, Hungary.,Department of Zoology, Hungarian Natural History Museum, H-1083, Budapest, Ludovika tér 2-6, Hungary
| | - Dénes Száz
- Department of Biological Physics, ELTE Eötvös Loránd University, H-1117, Budapest, Pázmány sétány 1, Hungary
| | - András Barta
- Estrato Research and Development Ltd., H-1124, Németvölgyi út 91/c, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Imre M Jánosi
- Department of Physics of Complex Systems, ELTE Eötvös Loránd University, H-1117, Budapest, Pázmány sétány 1, Hungary
| | - Balázs Gerics
- Department of Anatomy and Histology, University of Veterinary Medicine, H-1078, Budapest, István utca 2, Hungary
| | - Susanne Åkesson
- Department of Biology, Centre for Animal Movement Research, Lund University, Ecology Building, SE-223 62, Lund, Sweden
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15
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Nigenda‐Morales SF, Hu Y, Beasley JC, Ruiz‐Piña HA, Valenzuela‐Galván D, Wayne RK. Transcriptomic analysis of skin pigmentation variation in the Virginia opossum (
Didelphis virginiana
). Mol Ecol 2018; 27:2680-2697. [DOI: 10.1111/mec.14712] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2017] [Revised: 04/05/2018] [Accepted: 04/17/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sergio F. Nigenda‐Morales
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology University of California, Los Angeles Los Angeles California
| | - Yibo Hu
- Key Lab of Animal Ecology and Conservation Biology Institute of Zoology Chinese Academy of Sciences Chaoyang, Beijing China
| | - James C. Beasley
- Savannah River Ecology Lab Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources University of Georgia Aiken South Carolina
| | - Hugo A. Ruiz‐Piña
- Centro de Investigaciones Regionales “Dr. Hideyo Noguchi” Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán Mérida Yucatán Mexico
| | - David Valenzuela‐Galván
- Departamento de Ecología Evolutiva Centro de Investigación en Biodiversidad y Conservación Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Morelos Cuernavaca Morelos Mexico
| | - Robert K. Wayne
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology University of California, Los Angeles Los Angeles California
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16
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McCafferty DJ, Pandraud G, Gilles J, Fabra-Puchol M, Henry PY. Animal thermoregulation: a review of insulation, physiology and behaviour relevant to temperature control in buildings. BIOINSPIRATION & BIOMIMETICS 2017; 13:011001. [PMID: 29130885 DOI: 10.1088/1748-3190/aa9a12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Birds and mammals have evolved many thermal adaptations that are relevant to the bioinspired design of temperature control systems and energy management in buildings. Similar to many buildings, endothermic animals generate internal metabolic heat, are well insulated, regulate their temperature within set limits, modify microclimate and adjust thermal exchange with their environment. We review the major components of animal thermoregulation in endothermic birds and mammals that are pertinent to building engineering, in a world where climate is changing and reduction in energy use is needed. In animals, adjustment of insulation together with physiological and behavioural responses to changing environmental conditions fine-tune spatial and temporal regulation of body temperature, while also minimizing energy expenditure. These biological adaptations are characteristically flexible, allowing animals to alter their body temperatures to hourly, daily, or annual demands for energy. They exemplify how buildings could become more thermally reactive to meteorological fluctuations, capitalising on dynamic thermal materials and system properties. Based on this synthesis, we suggest that heat transfer modelling could be used to simulate these flexible biomimetic features and assess their success in reducing energy costs while maintaining thermal comfort for given building types.
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Affiliation(s)
- D J McCafferty
- Mécanismes Adaptatifs et Evolution (MECADEV UMR 7179), Sorbonne Universités, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, 1 avenue du Petit Château, 91800 Brunoy, France
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17
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Caputo M, Rubenstein DI, Froneman PW, Bouveroux T. Striping patterns may not influence social interactions and mating in zebra: Observations from melanic zebra in South Africa. Afr J Ecol 2017. [DOI: 10.1111/aje.12463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Michelle Caputo
- Department of Zoology and Entomology; Rhodes University; Grahamstown South Africa
| | - Daniel I. Rubenstein
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology; Princeton University; Princeton NJ USA
| | - Pierre W. Froneman
- Department of Zoology and Entomology; Rhodes University; Grahamstown South Africa
| | - Thibaut Bouveroux
- Department of Zoology; Nelson Mandela University (NMU); Port Elizabeth South Africa
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18
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Affiliation(s)
- Morris Gosling
- Institute for Sustainability; University of Newcastle; Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 7RU UK
- Mountain Zebra Project; Namibia Nature Foundation; PO Box 245 Windhoek Namibia
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19
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Ireland HM, Ruxton GD. Zebra stripes: an interspecies signal to facilitate mixed-species herding? Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2017. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/blx037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
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20
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A Triumph of Multiple Hypothesis Testing. Trends Ecol Evol 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tree.2017.03.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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21
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Zebras and Biting Flies: Quantitative Analysis of Reflected Light from Zebra Coats in Their Natural Habitat. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0154504. [PMID: 27223616 PMCID: PMC4880349 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0154504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2015] [Accepted: 04/14/2016] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Experimental and comparative evidence suggests that the striped coats of zebras deter biting fly attack, but the mechanisms by which flies fail to target black-and-white mammals are still opaque. Two hypotheses have been proposed: stripes might serve either to defeat polarotaxis or to obscure the form of the animal. To test these hypotheses, we systematically photographed free-living plains zebras in Africa. We found that black and white stripes both have moderate polarization signatures with a similar angle, though the degree (magnitude) of polarization in white stripes is lower. When we modeled the visibility of these signals from different distances, we found that polarization differences between stripes are invisible to flies more than 10 m away because they are averaged out by the flies’ low visual resolution. At any distance, however, a positively polarotactic insect would have a distinct signal to guide its visual approach to a zebra because we found that polarization of light reflecting from zebras is higher than from surrounding dry grasses. We also found that the stripes themselves are visible to flies at somewhat greater distances (up to 20 m) than the polarization contrast between stripes. Together, these observations support hypotheses in which zebra stripes defeat visually guided orienting behavior in flies by a mechanism independent of polarotaxis.
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22
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Larison B, Harrigan RJ, Rubenstein DI, Smith TB. Concordance on zebra stripes is not black and white: response to comment by Caro & Stankowich (2015). ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2015; 2:150359. [PMID: 26473058 PMCID: PMC4593692 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.150359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2015] [Accepted: 09/02/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Brenda Larison
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, 610 Charles E. Young Drive South, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
- Center for Tropical Research, Institute of the Environment and Sustainability, University of California, 619 Charles E. Young Drive East, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Ryan J. Harrigan
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, 610 Charles E. Young Drive South, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
- Center for Tropical Research, Institute of the Environment and Sustainability, University of California, 619 Charles E. Young Drive East, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Daniel I. Rubenstein
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Princeton University, 106A Guyot Hall, Princeton, NJ 08544, USA
| | - Thomas B. Smith
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, 610 Charles E. Young Drive South, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
- Center for Tropical Research, Institute of the Environment and Sustainability, University of California, 619 Charles E. Young Drive East, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
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23
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Caro T, Stankowich T. Concordance on zebra stripes: a comment on Larison et al. (2015). ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2015; 2:150323. [PMID: 26473053 PMCID: PMC4593687 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.150323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2015] [Accepted: 07/07/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Tim Caro
- Department of Wildlife, Fish and Conservation Biology, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Theodore Stankowich
- Department of Biological Sciences, California State University, Long Beach, CA 90840, USA
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24
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Hughes AE, Magor-Elliott RS, Stevens M. The role of stripe orientation in target capture success. Front Zool 2015; 12:17. [PMID: 26269704 PMCID: PMC4533824 DOI: 10.1186/s12983-015-0110-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2015] [Accepted: 07/08/2015] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction ‘Motion dazzle’ refers to the hypothesis that high contrast patterns such as stripes and zigzags may have evolved in a wide range of animals as they make it difficult to judge the trajectory of an animal in motion. Despite recent research into this idea, it is still unclear to what extent stripes interfere with motion judgement and if effects are seen, what visual processes might underlie them. We use human participants performing a touch screen task in which they attempt to ‘catch’ moving targets in order to determine whether stripe orientation affects capture success, as previous research has suggested that different stripe orientations may be processed differently by the visual system. We also ask whether increasing the number of targets presented in a trial can affect capture success, as previous research has suggested that motion dazzle effects may be larger in groups. Results When single targets were presented sequentially within each trial, we find that perpendicular and oblique striped targets are captured at a similar rate to uniform grey targets, but parallel striped targets are significantly easier to capture. However, when multiple targets are present simultaneously during a trial we find that striped targets are captured in fewer attempts and more quickly than grey targets. Conclusions Our results suggest that there may be differences in capture success based on target pattern orientation, perhaps suggesting that different visual mechanisms are involved in processing of parallel stripes compared to perpendicular/oblique stripes. However, these results do not seem to generalise to trials with multiple targets, and contrary to previous predictions, striped targets appear to be easier to capture when multiple targets are present compared to being presented individually. These results suggest that the different orientations of stripes seen on animals in nature (such as in fish and snakes) may serve different purposes, and that it is unclear whether motion dazzle effects may have greater benefits for animals living in groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna E Hughes
- Department of Physiology, Development and Neuroscience, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Richard S Magor-Elliott
- Department of Physiology, Development and Neuroscience, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Martin Stevens
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter, Penryn Campus, Cornwall, UK
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25
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Ball P. Forging patterns and making waves from biology to geology: a commentary on Turing (1952) 'The chemical basis of morphogenesis'. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2015; 373:rsta.2014.0218. [PMID: 25750229 DOI: 10.1098/rsta.2014.0218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/17/2015] [Indexed: 05/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Alan Turing was neither a biologist nor a chemist, and yet the paper he published in 1952, 'The chemical basis of morphogenesis', on the spontaneous formation of patterns in systems undergoing reaction and diffusion of their ingredients has had a substantial impact on both fields, as well as in other areas as disparate as geomorphology and criminology. Motivated by the question of how a spherical embryo becomes a decidedly non-spherical organism such as a human being, Turing devised a mathematical model that explained how random fluctuations can drive the emergence of pattern and structure from initial uniformity. The spontaneous appearance of pattern and form in a system far away from its equilibrium state occurs in many types of natural process, and in some artificial ones too. It is often driven by very general mechanisms, of which Turing's model supplies one of the most versatile. For that reason, these patterns show striking similarities in systems that seem superficially to share nothing in common, such as the stripes of sand ripples and of pigmentation on a zebra skin. New examples of 'Turing patterns' in biology and beyond are still being discovered today. This commentary was written to celebrate the 350th anniversary of the journal Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip Ball
- 18 Hillcourt Road, East Dulwich, London SE22 0PE, UK
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26
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Ball P. Forging patterns and making waves from biology to geology: a commentary on Turing (1952) 'The chemical basis of morphogenesis'. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2015; 370:20140218. [PMID: 25750229 PMCID: PMC4360114 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2014.0218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Alan Turing was neither a biologist nor a chemist, and yet the paper he published in 1952, 'The chemical basis of morphogenesis', on the spontaneous formation of patterns in systems undergoing reaction and diffusion of their ingredients has had a substantial impact on both fields, as well as in other areas as disparate as geomorphology and criminology. Motivated by the question of how a spherical embryo becomes a decidedly non-spherical organism such as a human being, Turing devised a mathematical model that explained how random fluctuations can drive the emergence of pattern and structure from initial uniformity. The spontaneous appearance of pattern and form in a system far away from its equilibrium state occurs in many types of natural process, and in some artificial ones too. It is often driven by very general mechanisms, of which Turing's model supplies one of the most versatile. For that reason, these patterns show striking similarities in systems that seem superficially to share nothing in common, such as the stripes of sand ripples and of pigmentation on a zebra skin. New examples of 'Turing patterns' in biology and beyond are still being discovered today. This commentary was written to celebrate the 350th anniversary of the journal Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip Ball
- 18 Hillcourt Road, East Dulwich, London SE22 0PE, UK
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