1
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Ollonen J, Khannoon ER, Macrì S, Vergilov V, Kuurne J, Saarikivi J, Soukainen A, Aalto IM, Werneburg I, Diaz RE, Di-Poï N. Dynamic evolutionary interplay between ontogenetic skull patterning and whole-head integration. Nat Ecol Evol 2024; 8:536-551. [PMID: 38200368 DOI: 10.1038/s41559-023-02295-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2023] [Accepted: 11/29/2023] [Indexed: 01/12/2024]
Abstract
The arrangement and morphology of the vertebrate skull reflect functional and ecological demands, making it a highly adaptable structure. However, the fundamental developmental and macroevolutionary mechanisms leading to different vertebrate skull phenotypes remain unclear. Here we exploit the morphological diversity of squamate reptiles to assess the developmental and evolutionary patterns of skull variation and covariation in the whole head. Our geometric morphometric analysis of a complex squamate ontogenetic dataset (209 specimens, 169 embryos, 44 species), covering stages from craniofacial primordia to fully ossified bones, reveals that morphological differences between snake and lizard skulls arose gradually through changes in spatial relationships (heterotopy) followed by alterations in developmental timing or rate (heterochrony). Along with dynamic spatiotemporal changes in the integration pattern of skull bone shape and topology with surrounding brain tissues and sensory organs, we identify a relatively higher phenotypic integration of the developing snake head compared with lizards. The eye, nasal cavity and Jacobson's organ are pivotal in skull morphogenesis, highlighting the importance of sensory rearrangements in snake evolution. Furthermore, our findings demonstrate the importance of early embryonic, ontogenetic and tissue interactions in shaping craniofacial evolution and ecological diversification in squamates, with implications for the nature of cranio-cerebral relations across vertebrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joni Ollonen
- Institute of Biotechnology, Helsinki Institute of Life Science, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Eraqi R Khannoon
- Biology Department, College of Science, Taibah University, Al Madinah Al Munawwarah, Saudi Arabia
- Zoology Department, Faculty of Science, Fayoum University, Fayoum, Egypt
| | - Simone Macrì
- Institute of Biotechnology, Helsinki Institute of Life Science, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Vladislav Vergilov
- National Museum of Natural History, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia, Bulgaria
| | - Jaakko Kuurne
- Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Jarmo Saarikivi
- Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Arttu Soukainen
- Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Ida-Maria Aalto
- Institute of Biotechnology, Helsinki Institute of Life Science, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Ingmar Werneburg
- Senckenberg Centre for Human Evolution and Palaeoenvironment, Eberhard Karls Universität, Tübingen, Germany
- Fachbereich Geowissenschaften, Eberhard Karls Universität, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Raul E Diaz
- Department of Biological Sciences, California State University, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Department of Herpetology, Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Nicolas Di-Poï
- Institute of Biotechnology, Helsinki Institute of Life Science, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.
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2
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Koyabu D. Evolution, conservatism and overlooked homologies of the mammalian skull. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2023; 378:20220081. [PMID: 37183902 PMCID: PMC10184252 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2022.0081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/16/2023] Open
Abstract
In the last decade, studies integrating palaeontology, embryology and experimental developmental biology have markedly altered our homological understanding of the mammalian skull. Indeed, new evidence suggests that we should revisit and restructure the conventional anatomical terminology applied to the components of the mammalian skull. Notably, these are classical problems that have remained unresolved since the ninteenth century. In this review, I offer perspectives on the overlooked problems associated with the homology, development, and conservatism of the mammalian skull, aiming to encourage future studies in these areas. I emphasise that ossification patterns, bone fusion, cranial sutures and taxon-specific neomorphic bones in the skull are virtually unexplored, and further studies would improve our homological understanding of the mammalian skull. Lastly, I highlight that overlooked bones may exist in the skull that are not yet known to science and suggest that further search is needed. This article is part of the theme issue 'The mammalian skull: development, structure and function'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daisuke Koyabu
- Research and Development Center for Precision Medicine, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Japan
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Public Health, Jockey Club College of Veterinary Medicine and Life Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, People's Republic of China
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3
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Goswami A, Noirault E, Coombs EJ, Clavel J, Fabre AC, Halliday TJD, Churchill M, Curtis A, Watanabe A, Simmons NB, Beatty BL, Geisler JH, Fox DL, Felice RN. Developmental origin underlies evolutionary rate variation across the placental skull. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2023; 378:20220083. [PMID: 37183904 PMCID: PMC10184245 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2022.0083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/16/2023] Open
Abstract
The placental skull has evolved into myriad forms, from longirostrine whales to globular primates, and with a diverse array of appendages from antlers to tusks. This disparity has recently been studied from the perspective of the whole skull, but the skull is composed of numerous elements that have distinct developmental origins and varied functions. Here, we assess the evolution of the skull's major skeletal elements, decomposed into 17 individual regions. Using a high-dimensional morphometric approach for a dataset of 322 living and extinct eutherians (placental mammals and their stem relatives), we quantify patterns of variation and estimate phylogenetic, allometric and ecological signal across the skull. We further compare rates of evolution across ecological categories and ordinal-level clades and reconstruct rates of evolution along lineages and through time to assess whether developmental origin or function discriminate the evolutionary trajectories of individual cranial elements. Our results demonstrate distinct macroevolutionary patterns across cranial elements that reflect the ecological adaptations of major clades. Elements derived from neural crest show the fastest rates of evolution, but ecological signal is equally pronounced in bones derived from neural crest and paraxial mesoderm, suggesting that developmental origin may influence evolutionary tempo, but not capacity for specialisation. This article is part of the theme issue 'The mammalian skull: development, structure and function'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anjali Goswami
- Department of Life Sciences, Natural History Museum, London SW7 5BD, UK
- Department of Genetics, Evolution, and Environment, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, UK
| | - Eve Noirault
- Department of Life Sciences, Natural History Museum, London SW7 5BD, UK
| | - Ellen J Coombs
- Department of Life Sciences, Natural History Museum, London SW7 5BD, UK
- Department of Genetics, Evolution, and Environment, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, UK
- Department of Vertebrate Zoology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC 20013, USA
| | - Julien Clavel
- Université Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, ENTPE, UMR 5023 LEHNA, 69622 Villeurbanne, France
| | - Anne-Claire Fabre
- Department of Life Sciences, Natural History Museum, London SW7 5BD, UK
- Naturhistorisches Museum Bern, 3005 Bern, Switzerland
- Institute of Ecology and Evolution, University of Bern, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Thomas J D Halliday
- Department of Life Sciences, Natural History Museum, London SW7 5BD, UK
- School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
| | - Morgan Churchill
- Department of Biology, University of Wisconsin Oshkosh, Oshkosh, WI 54901, USA
| | - Abigail Curtis
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Akinobu Watanabe
- Department of Life Sciences, Natural History Museum, London SW7 5BD, UK
- Department of Anatomy, College of Osteopathic Medicine, New York Institute of Technology, Old Westbury, NY 11568, USA
- Division of Paleontology, American Museum of Natural History, New York, NY 10024, USA
| | - Nancy B Simmons
- Department of Mammalogy, Division of Vertebrate Zoology, American Museum of Natural History, New York, NY 10024, USA
| | - Brian L Beatty
- Department of Paleobiology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC 20013, USA
- Department of Anatomy, College of Osteopathic Medicine, New York Institute of Technology, Old Westbury, NY 11568, USA
| | - Jonathan H Geisler
- Department of Paleobiology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC 20013, USA
- Department of Anatomy, College of Osteopathic Medicine, New York Institute of Technology, Old Westbury, NY 11568, USA
| | - David L Fox
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
| | - Ryan N Felice
- Department of Life Sciences, Natural History Museum, London SW7 5BD, UK
- Department of Genetics, Evolution, and Environment, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, UK
- Centre for Integrative Anatomy, Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, UK
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4
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Kuroda S, Adachi N, Kuratani S. A detailed redescription of the mesoderm/neural crest cell boundary in the murine orbitotemporal region integrates the mammalian cranium into a pan-amniote cranial configuration. Evol Dev 2023; 25:32-53. [PMID: 35909296 DOI: 10.1111/ede.12411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2022] [Revised: 06/14/2022] [Accepted: 07/02/2022] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
The morphology of the mammalian chondrocranium appears to differ significantly from those of other amniotes, since the former possesses uniquely developed brain and cranial sensory organs. In particular, a question has long remained unanswered as to the developmental and evolutionary origins of a cartilaginous nodule called the ala hypochiasmatica. In this study, we investigated the embryonic origin of skeletal elements in the murine orbitotemporal region by combining genetic cell lineage analysis with detailed morphological observation. Our results showed that the mesodermal embryonic environment including the ala hypochiasmatica, which appeared as an isolated mesodermal distribution in the neural crest-derived prechordal region, is formed as a part of the mesoderm that continued from the chordal region during early chondrocranial development. The mesoderm/neural crest cell boundary in the head mesenchyme is modified through development, resulting in the secondary mesodermal expansion to invade into the prechordal region. We thus revealed that the ala hypochiasmatica develops as the frontier of the mesodermal sheet stretched along the cephalic flexure. These results suggest that the mammalian ala hypochiasmatica has evolved from a part of the mesodermal primary cranial wall in ancestral amniotes. In addition, the endoskeletal elements in the orbitotemporal region, such as the orbital cartilage, suprapterygoid articulation of the palatoquadrate, and trabecula, some of which were once believed to represent primitive traits of amniotes and to be lost in the mammalian lineage, have been confirmed to exist in the mammalian cranium. Consequently, the mammalian chondrocranium can now be explained in relation to the pan-amniote cranial configuration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shunya Kuroda
- Laboratory for Evolutionary Morphology, RIKEN Center for Biosystems Dynamics Research (BDR), Kobe, Hyogo, Japan.,Department of Biology, Graduate School of Science, Kobe University, Kobe, Hyogo, Japan
| | - Noritaka Adachi
- Aix-Marseille Université, CNRS UMR 7288, IBDM, Marseille, France.,Laboratory for Evolutionary Morphology, RIKEN Cluster for Pioneering Research (CPR), Kobe, Hyogo, Japan
| | - Shigeru Kuratani
- Laboratory for Evolutionary Morphology, RIKEN Center for Biosystems Dynamics Research (BDR), Kobe, Hyogo, Japan
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5
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Korneisel DE, Vice R, Maddin HC. Anatomy and development of skull-neck boundary structures in the skeleton of the extant crocodylian Alligator mississippiensis. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2021; 305:3002-3015. [PMID: 34846803 DOI: 10.1002/ar.24834] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2021] [Revised: 10/05/2021] [Accepted: 10/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
A system-by-system approach dominates morphological and evolutionary study; however, some structures that are better understood within the context of an interface between two systems or traditional units remain less well understood. As part of a larger goal to clarify aspects of skull-neck boundary evolution, we herein describe the morphology and development of the occiput and atlas-axis complex in the crocodylian Alligator mississippiensis. We apply micro-computed tomography scanning, clearing and double staining, and histological analyses to skull-neck boundary structures at three stages of development (embryonic stage 22, 23, and hatchling). Regions of ossification that could possibly pertain to a postparietal were found adjacent to the parietal bone and supraoccipital; however, these were not deemed convincing and are considered part of the supraoccipital. Within the atlas-axis complex, the proatlas appears as two discrete cartilaginous elements in Stage 22 that ossify together at Stage 23. Posterior to the proatlas, the atlas-axis complex is composed of two centra, each with cervical ribs ventrally and neural arches dorsally that begin ossifying at Stage 23. Histology and clearing and staining of Stages 22 and 23 embryos reveal a discrete atlas intercentrum applied to the ventral part of the occipital condyle of the skull. Posterior to this is a cartilage that appears to be a co-chondrified atlas pleurocentrum, axis intercentrum, and axis pleurocentrum. Ossification of this cartilaginous structure produces discrete atlas inter- and pleurocentra, as well as a singular axis centrum. Together these data are discussed with reference to clarifying historical discrepancies concerning elements at the crocodylian skull-neck boundary.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dana E Korneisel
- Department of Earth Sciences, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Rebekah Vice
- Department of Earth Sciences, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Hillary C Maddin
- Department of Earth Sciences, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
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6
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Felice RN, Pol D, Goswami A. Complex macroevolutionary dynamics underly the evolution of the crocodyliform skull. Proc Biol Sci 2021; 288:20210919. [PMID: 34256005 PMCID: PMC8277476 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2021.0919] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
All modern crocodyliforms (alligators, crocodiles and the gharial) are semi-aquatic generalist carnivores that are relatively similar in cranial form and function. However, this homogeneity represents just a fraction of the variation that once existed in the clade, which includes extinct herbivorous and marine forms with divergent skull structure and function. Here, we use high-dimensional three-dimensional geometric morphometrics to quantify whole-skull morphology across modern and fossil crocodyliforms to untangle the factors that shaped the macroevolutionary history and relatively low phenotypic variation of this clade through time. Evolutionary modelling demonstrates that the pace of crocodyliform cranial evolution is initially high, particularly in the extinct Notosuchia, but slows near the base of Neosuchia, with a late burst of rapid evolution in crown-group crocodiles. Surprisingly, modern crocodiles, especially Australian, southeast Asian, Indo-Pacific species, have high rates of evolution, despite exhibiting low variation. Thus, extant lineages are not in evolutionary stasis but rather have rapidly fluctuated within a limited region of morphospace, resulting in significant convergence. The structures related to jaw closing and bite force production (e.g. pterygoid flange and quadrate) are highly variable, reinforcing the importance of function in driving phenotypic variation. Together, these findings illustrate that the apparent conservativeness of crocodyliform skulls betrays unappreciated complexity in their macroevolutionary dynamics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan N Felice
- Centre for Integrative Anatomy, Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University College London, London, UK.,Department of Life Sciences, The Natural History Museum, London, UK
| | - Diego Pol
- CONICET, Museo Paleontológico Egidio Feruglio, Trelew 9100, Chubut, Argentina
| | - Anjali Goswami
- Department of Life Sciences, The Natural History Museum, London, UK
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7
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Enny A, Shanabag A, Thompson AW, Racicot B, Braasch I, Nakamura T. Cellular mechanisms of frontal bone development in spotted gar (Lepisosteus oculatus). Dev Dyn 2021; 250:1668-1682. [PMID: 33913218 DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2020] [Revised: 04/17/2021] [Accepted: 04/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The cellular and molecular mechanisms initiating vertebrate cranial dermal bone formation is a conundrum in evolutionary and developmental biology. Decades of studies have determined the developmental processes of cranial dermal bones in various vertebrates and identified possible inducers of dermal bone. However, evolutionarily derived characters of current experimental model organisms, such as non-homologous frontal bones between teleosts and sarcopterygians, hinder investigations of ancestral and conserved mechanisms of vertebrate cranial dermal bone induction. Thus, investigating such mechanisms with animals diverging at evolutionarily informative phylogenetic nodes is imperative. RESULTS We investigated the cellular foundations of skull frontal bone formation in the spotted gar Lepisosteus oculatus, a basally branching non-teleost actinopterygian. Whole-mount bone and cartilage staining and hematoxylin-eosin section staining revealed that mesenchymal cell condensations in the frontal bone of spotted gar develop in close association with the underlying cartilage. We also identified novel aspects of frontal bone formation: enrichment of F-actin, cellular membranes, and E-cadherin in condensing cells, and extension of podia-like structures from osteoblasts to the frontal bone, which may be responsible for bone mineral transport. CONCLUSION This study highlights the process of frontal bone formation with dynamic architectural changes of mesenchymal cells in spotted gar, an emerging non-teleost fish model system, illuminating supposedly ancestral and likely conserved developmental mechanisms of skull bone formation among vertebrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alyssa Enny
- Department of Genetics, Rutgers the State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, New Jersey, USA
| | - Anusha Shanabag
- Department of Genetics, Rutgers the State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, New Jersey, USA
| | - Andrew W Thompson
- Department of Integrative Biology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA.,Program in Ecology, Evolution, and Behavior (EEB), Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA
| | - Brett Racicot
- Department of Integrative Biology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA
| | - Ingo Braasch
- Department of Integrative Biology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA.,Program in Ecology, Evolution, and Behavior (EEB), Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA
| | - Tetsuya Nakamura
- Department of Genetics, Rutgers the State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, New Jersey, USA
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8
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Gartrell BD, Argilla LS, Chatterton J, Dennison-Gibby S, Digby A, Fulton J, Hunter S, Johnson KL, Jolly M, Lenting B. Surgical repair of a meningoencephalocoele in a kākāpō ( Strigops habroptilus). N Z Vet J 2021; 69:247-254. [PMID: 33906586 DOI: 10.1080/00480169.2021.1909509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
CASE HISTORY A kākāpō (Strigops habroptilus) chick hatched on an off-shore island of New Zealand with a small white mass protruding through the cranial skin of the head. The chick's growth followed a normal pattern for kākāpō but at 3 weeks of age the cranium mass was non-reducible and fixed in place and the chick was removed from the island for diagnostic imaging and hand-rearing. CLINICAL FINDINGS AND TREATMENT A computed tomography (CT) examination revealed a full-thickness circular defect in the central cranium with suspected herniation of brain and dura. Surgery was performed at 37 days of age, and the herniated dura was dissected from the open fontanelle. Attempts to reduce the herniated tissue were unsuccessful, so the herniated dura and cortex were clamped and resected. The dura was closed and the periosteum of the skull was scarified and monofilament polypropylene mesh was secured tautly over the fontanelle. The mesh graft was infused with autologous bone marrow harvested from the ulna in an attempt to stimulate osteogenesis in the mesh repair. The skin flap was then closed. Post-operative recovery and healing were without complication. A CT examination 4 weeks after surgery showed no recurrence of the hernia, and a composite of mesh and scar over the open fontanelle which had reduced in diameter. The chick was released back onto an off-shore island with a radio transmitter and it continues to be monitored regularly. PATHOLOGICAL FINDINGS The tissue resected at surgery consisted of a cylindrical core of cerebral parenchyma overlain by a mildly hyperplastic epidermis, and large amounts of oedematous fibrovascular tissue arising from the leptomeninges. DIAGNOSIS Rostral parietal meningoencephalocoele. CLINICAL RELEVANCE This is the first report of successful surgical resolution of a meningoencephalocoele in any bird. Techniques from human neurosurgery were adapted for the unique anatomical features of the avian skull. The risks of the procedure included increased intra-cranial pressure resulting in anaesthetic complications or death, cerebrospinal fluid leakage, meningitis or recurrence of the meningoencephalocoele. In the longer term, there was a risk of developmental deficits in cognition or behaviour. None of these complications eventuated in the short to medium term, probably due to the small size of the meningoencephalocoele.
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Affiliation(s)
- B D Gartrell
- Wildbase, Tāwharau Ora, School of Veterinary Science, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - L S Argilla
- The Wildlife Hospital Dunedin, Otago Polytechnic, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - J Chatterton
- New Zealand Centre for Conservation Medicine, Auckland Zoo, Auckland, New Zealand
| | | | - A Digby
- Kakapo Recovery Team, Department of Conservation, Invercargill, New Zealand
| | - J Fulton
- Pacific Radiology, Marinoto Clinic, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - S Hunter
- Wildbase, Tāwharau Ora, School of Veterinary Science, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - K L Johnson
- Wildbase, Tāwharau Ora, School of Veterinary Science, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - M Jolly
- Wildbase, Tāwharau Ora, School of Veterinary Science, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - B Lenting
- The Nest Te Kōhanga, Wellington Zoo, Wellington, New Zealand
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9
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Crane-Smith Z, Schoenebeck J, Graham KA, Devenney PS, Rose L, Ditzell M, Anderson E, Thomson JI, Klenin N, Kurrasch DM, Lettice LA, Hill RE. A Highly Conserved Shh Enhancer Coordinates Hypothalamic and Craniofacial Development. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 9:595744. [PMID: 33869166 PMCID: PMC8047142 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.595744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2020] [Accepted: 02/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Enhancers that are conserved deep in evolutionary time regulate characteristics held in common across taxonomic classes. Here, deletion of the highly conserved Shh enhancer SBE2 (Shh brain enhancer 2) in mouse markedly reduced Shh expression within the embryonic brain specifically in the rostral diencephalon; however, no abnormal anatomical phenotype was observed. Secondary enhancer activity was subsequently identified which likely mediates low levels of expression. In contrast, when crossing the SBE2 deletion with the Shh null allele, brain and craniofacial development were disrupted; thus, linking SBE2 regulated Shh expression to multiple defects and further enabling the study of the effects of differing levels of Shh on embryogenesis. Development of the hypothalamus, derived from the rostral diencephalon, was disrupted along both the anterior-posterior (AP) and the dorsal-ventral (DV) axes. Expression of DV patterning genes and subsequent neuronal population induction were particularly sensitive to Shh expression levels, demonstrating a novel morphogenic context for Shh. The role of SBE2, which is highlighted by DV gene expression, is to step-up expression of Shh above the minimal activity of the second enhancer, ensuring the necessary levels of Shh in a regional-specific manner. We also show that low Shh levels in the diencephalon disrupted neighbouring craniofacial development, including mediolateral patterning of the bones along the cranial floor and viscerocranium. Thus, SBE2 contributes to hypothalamic morphogenesis and ensures there is coordination with the formation of the adjacent midline cranial bones that subsequently protect the neural tissue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zoe Crane-Smith
- Medical Research Council Human Genetics Unit, Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Jeffrey Schoenebeck
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School for Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Katy A Graham
- Medical Research Council Human Genetics Unit, Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Paul S Devenney
- Medical Research Council Human Genetics Unit, Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Lorraine Rose
- Medical Research Council Human Genetics Unit, Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Mark Ditzell
- Cancer Research UK Edinburgh Centre, Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Eve Anderson
- Medical Research Council Human Genetics Unit, Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Joseph I Thomson
- Medical Research Council Human Genetics Unit, Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Natasha Klenin
- Department of Medical Genetics, Alberta Children's Hospital Research Institute and Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Deborah M Kurrasch
- Department of Medical Genetics, Alberta Children's Hospital Research Institute and Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Laura A Lettice
- Medical Research Council Human Genetics Unit, Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Robert E Hill
- Medical Research Council Human Genetics Unit, Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
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10
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White HE, Goswami A, Tucker AS. The Intertwined Evolution and Development of Sutures and Cranial Morphology. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 9:653579. [PMID: 33842480 PMCID: PMC8033035 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.653579] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2021] [Accepted: 03/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Phenotypic variation across mammals is extensive and reflects their ecological diversification into a remarkable range of habitats on every continent and in every ocean. The skull performs many functions to enable each species to thrive within its unique ecological niche, from prey acquisition, feeding, sensory capture (supporting vision and hearing) to brain protection. Diversity of skull function is reflected by its complex and highly variable morphology. Cranial morphology can be quantified using geometric morphometric techniques to offer invaluable insights into evolutionary patterns, ecomorphology, development, taxonomy, and phylogenetics. Therefore, the skull is one of the best suited skeletal elements for developmental and evolutionary analyses. In contrast, less attention is dedicated to the fibrous sutural joints separating the cranial bones. Throughout postnatal craniofacial development, sutures function as sites of bone growth, accommodating expansion of a growing brain. As growth frontiers, cranial sutures are actively responsible for the size and shape of the cranial bones, with overall skull shape being altered by changes to both the level and time period of activity of a given cranial suture. In keeping with this, pathological premature closure of sutures postnatally causes profound misshaping of the skull (craniosynostosis). Beyond this crucial role, sutures also function postnatally to provide locomotive shock absorption, allow joint mobility during feeding, and, in later postnatal stages, suture fusion acts to protect the developed brain. All these sutural functions have a clear impact on overall cranial function, development and morphology, and highlight the importance that patterns of suture development have in shaping the diversity of cranial morphology across taxa. Here we focus on the mammalian cranial system and review the intrinsic relationship between suture development and morphology and cranial shape from an evolutionary developmental biology perspective, with a view to understanding the influence of sutures on evolutionary diversity. Future work integrating suture development into a comparative evolutionary framework will be instrumental to understanding how developmental mechanisms shaping sutures ultimately influence evolutionary diversity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heather E White
- Department of Life Sciences, Natural History Museum, London, United Kingdom.,Centre for Craniofacial and Regenerative Biology, King's College London, London, United Kingdom.,Division of Biosciences, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Anjali Goswami
- Department of Life Sciences, Natural History Museum, London, United Kingdom.,Division of Biosciences, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Abigail S Tucker
- Centre for Craniofacial and Regenerative Biology, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
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11
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Arnaout B, Lantigua KE, MacKenzie EM, McKinnell IW, Maddin HC. Development of the chicken skull: A complement to the external staging table of Hamburger and Hamilton. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2021; 304:2726-2740. [PMID: 33620154 DOI: 10.1002/ar.24603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2020] [Revised: 01/05/2021] [Accepted: 01/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Embryonic staging tables provide a standard of developmental stages that can be used by individual investigators and provide approximate time points for the study of developmental phenomena. Surprisingly, despite the presence of a plethora of studies on the chicken skull and its role as a model species in developmental research, a staging table of the development of the chicken skull remains lacking. A detailed photographic staging table of the osseous portion of the chicken skull is thus presented here based on cleared and stained HH stages spanning HH 35 (first appearance of skull ossification) to the final stage before hatching (HH 45). This table documents the development of most of the cranial elements in the skull from the start of ossification until the element takes its final shape. The table shows that the elements of the lower jaw and ventral side of the skull begin ossifying before the skull roof and that most elements take roughly 5 days to reach their final shape, whereas others take up to 9 days (e.g., the frontal). The obtained results lead to several hypotheses about chicken skull development and provide a timeframe for future studies on chicken skull development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bassel Arnaout
- Department of Earth Sciences, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Kayla E Lantigua
- Department of Earth Sciences, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Erin M MacKenzie
- Department of Earth Sciences, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Iain W McKinnell
- Department of Biology, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Hillary C Maddin
- Department of Earth Sciences, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
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12
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Rocha M, Beiriger A, Kushkowski EE, Miyashita T, Singh N, Venkataraman V, Prince VE. From head to tail: regionalization of the neural crest. Development 2020; 147:dev193888. [PMID: 33106325 PMCID: PMC7648597 DOI: 10.1242/dev.193888] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The neural crest is regionalized along the anteroposterior axis, as demonstrated by foundational lineage-tracing experiments that showed the restricted developmental potential of neural crest cells originating in the head. Here, we explore how recent studies of experimental embryology, genetic circuits and stem cell differentiation have shaped our understanding of the mechanisms that establish axial-specific populations of neural crest cells. Additionally, we evaluate how comparative, anatomical and genomic approaches have informed our current understanding of the evolution of the neural crest and its contribution to the vertebrate body.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manuel Rocha
- Committee on Development, Regeneration and Stem Cell Biology, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
| | - Anastasia Beiriger
- Department of Organismal Biology and Anatomy, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
| | - Elaine E Kushkowski
- Committee on Development, Regeneration and Stem Cell Biology, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
| | - Tetsuto Miyashita
- Department of Organismal Biology and Anatomy, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
- Canadian Museum of Nature, Ottawa, ON K1P 6P4, Canada
| | - Noor Singh
- Department of Organismal Biology and Anatomy, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
| | - Vishruth Venkataraman
- Department of Organismal Biology and Anatomy, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
| | - Victoria E Prince
- Committee on Development, Regeneration and Stem Cell Biology, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
- Department of Organismal Biology and Anatomy, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
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13
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Lessner EJ, Holliday CM. A 3D ontogenetic atlas of Alligator mississippiensis cranial nerves and their significance for comparative neurology of reptiles. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2020; 305:2854-2882. [PMID: 33099878 DOI: 10.1002/ar.24550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2020] [Revised: 09/08/2020] [Accepted: 09/12/2020] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Cranial nerves are key features of the nervous system and vertebrate body plan. However, little is known about the anatomical relationships and ontogeny of cranial nerves in crocodylians and other reptiles, hampering understanding of adaptations, evolution, and development of special senses, somatosensation, and motor control of cranial organs. Here we share three dimensional (3D) models an of the cranial nerves and cranial nerve targets of embryonic, juvenile, and adult American Alligators (Alligator mississippiensis) derived from iodine-contrast CT imaging, for the first time, exploring anatomical patterns of cranial nerves across ontogeny. These data reveal the tradeoffs of using contrast-enhanced CT data as well as patterns in growth and development of the alligator cranial nervous system. Though contrast-enhanced CT scanning allows for reconstruction of numerous tissue types in a nondestructive manner, it is still limited by size and resolution. The position of alligator cranial nerves varies little with respect to other cranial structures yet grow at different rates as the skull elongates. These data constrain timing of trigeminal and sympathetic ganglion fusion and reveal morphometric differences in nerve size and path during growth. As demonstrated by these data, alligator cranial nerve morphology is useful in understanding patterns of neurological diversity and distribution, evolution of sensory and muscular innervation, and developmental homology of cranial regions, which in turn, lead to inferences of physiology and behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily J Lessner
- Program in Integrative Anatomy, Department of Pathology and Anatomical Sciences, University of Missouri School of Medicine, Columbia, Missouri, USA
| | - Casey M Holliday
- Program in Integrative Anatomy, Department of Pathology and Anatomical Sciences, University of Missouri School of Medicine, Columbia, Missouri, USA
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14
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Mayr G, Manegold A. On the comparative morphology of the juvenile avian skull: An assessment of squamosal shape across avian higher-level taxa. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2020; 304:845-859. [PMID: 32865310 DOI: 10.1002/ar.24504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2020] [Revised: 06/15/2020] [Accepted: 06/19/2020] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
The comparative morphology of juvenile avian skulls is poorly known. Here, we survey the shape of the squamosal (os squamosum) across juvenile skulls of avian higher-level clades. In all palaeognathous birds, the rostral end of the squamosal does not surpass the parietal and does not reach the frontal. This morphology is likely to be plesiomorphic for neornithine birds. A short squamosal also occurs in some Neognathae, but in most neognathous birds the squamosal contacts the frontal, and in some taxa the bone is strongly elongated and distinctly surpasses the parietal. Some clades show a notable variation in squamosal morphology. This is, for example, true for Strigiformes, where the taxon Athene differs from the other examined owls in squamosal size, and for the Passeriformes, where Old World Suboscines are characterized by a distinctive squamosal morphology. A unique derived squamosal morphology is for the first time reported for the Apodidae and Hemiprocnidae, in which the bone forms a elongated rostral process that runs along most of the orbital rim. In non-avian theropods, the squamosal articulates with the postorbital and delimits the upper temporal opening. Extant birds lack a postorbital, but a topological correlation between the squamosal and the postorbital process is maintained in most taxa of the Neognathae. The phylogenetic significance of squamosal morphology is diminished by the fact that closely related taxa often show very disparate shapes of the bone, and squamosal morphology appears to be determined by multiple functional constraints including skull geometry, brain morphology and, possibly, nostril type.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerald Mayr
- Ornithological Section, Senckenberg Research Institute and Natural History Museum Frankfurt, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
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15
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Maddin HC, Piekarski N, Reisz RR, Hanken J. Development and evolution of the tetrapod skull-neck boundary. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2020; 95:573-591. [PMID: 31912655 PMCID: PMC7318664 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12578] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2019] [Revised: 12/11/2019] [Accepted: 12/12/2019] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The origin and evolution of the vertebrate skull have been topics of intense study for more than two centuries. Whereas early theories of skull origin, such as the influential vertebral theory, have been largely refuted with respect to the anterior (pre-otic) region of the skull, the posterior (post-otic) region is known to be derived from the anteriormost paraxial segments, i.e. the somites. Here we review the morphology and development of the occiput in both living and extinct tetrapods, taking into account revised knowledge of skull development by augmenting historical accounts with recent data. When occipital composition is evaluated relative to its position along the neural axis, and specifically to the hypoglossal nerve complex, much of the apparent interspecific variation in the location of the skull-neck boundary stabilizes in a phylogenetically informative way. Based on this criterion, three distinct conditions are identified in (i) frogs, (ii) salamanders and caecilians, and (iii) amniotes. The position of the posteriormost occipital segment relative to the hypoglossal nerve is key to understanding the evolution of the posterior limit of the skull. By using cranial foramina as osteological proxies of the hypoglossal nerve, a survey of fossil taxa reveals the amniote condition to be present at the base of Tetrapoda. This result challenges traditional theories of cranial evolution, which posit translocation of the occiput to a more posterior location in amniotes relative to lissamphibians (frogs, salamanders, caecilians), and instead supports the largely overlooked hypothesis that the reduced occiput in lissamphibians is secondarily derived. Recent advances in our understanding of the genetic basis of axial patterning and its regulation in amniotes support the hypothesis that the lissamphibian occipital form may have arisen as the product of a homeotic shift in segment fate from an amniote-like condition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hillary C. Maddin
- Museum of Comparative ZoologyHarvard University, 26 Oxford StreetCambridgeMA02138U.S.A.
- Department of Earth SciencesCarleton University, 1125 Colonel By DriveOttawaOntarioK1S 5B6Canada
| | - Nadine Piekarski
- Museum of Comparative ZoologyHarvard University, 26 Oxford StreetCambridgeMA02138U.S.A.
| | - Robert R. Reisz
- Department of BiologyUniversity of Toronto Mississauga3359 Mississauga Road, MississaugaOntarioL5L 1C6Canada
| | - James Hanken
- Museum of Comparative ZoologyHarvard University, 26 Oxford StreetCambridgeMA02138U.S.A.
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16
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Atkins JB, Houle L, Cantelon AS, Maddin HC. Normal development in Ambystoma mexicanum: A complementary staging table for the skull based on Alizarin red S staining. Dev Dyn 2020; 249:656-665. [PMID: 31930611 DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2019] [Revised: 12/09/2019] [Accepted: 12/15/2019] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND As the role of Ambystoma mexicanum, or the Mexican axolotl, expands in research applications beyond its traditional use in studies of limb regeneration, a staging table that is more anatomically extensive is required. Here, we describe axolotl skull development as it relates to previously established developmental stages that were based on limb development. RESULTS We find that most key developmental events in the skull correspond to these previously established stages, creating easily recognizable stages of axolotl throughout skull morphogenesis. CONCLUSIONS With this complementary staging table in hand, researchers can stage axolotl larvae when limb data are missing or incomplete, or when cranial data alone is available.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jade B Atkins
- Department of Earth Sciences, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Laurent Houle
- Département de Biologie, Chimie et Géographie, Université du Québec à Rimouski, Rimouski, Québec, Canada
| | - Alanna S Cantelon
- Department of Earth Sciences, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Hillary C Maddin
- Department of Earth Sciences, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
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17
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Teng CS, Cavin L, Maxson RE, Sánchez-Villagra MR, Crump JG. Resolving homology in the face of shifting germ layer origins: Lessons from a major skull vault boundary. eLife 2019; 8:e52814. [PMID: 31869306 PMCID: PMC6927740 DOI: 10.7554/elife.52814] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2019] [Accepted: 12/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The vertebrate skull varies widely in shape, accommodating diverse strategies of feeding and predation. The braincase is composed of several flat bones that meet at flexible joints called sutures. Nearly all vertebrates have a prominent 'coronal' suture that separates the front and back of the skull. This suture can develop entirely within mesoderm-derived tissue, neural crest-derived tissue, or at the boundary of the two. Recent paleontological findings and genetic insights in non-mammalian model organisms serve to revise fundamental knowledge on the development and evolution of this suture. Growing evidence supports a decoupling of the germ layer origins of the mesenchyme that forms the calvarial bones from inductive signaling that establishes discrete bone centers. Changes in these relationships facilitate skull evolution and may create susceptibility to disease. These concepts provide a general framework for approaching issues of homology in cases where germ layer origins have shifted during evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Camilla S Teng
- Department of Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative MedicineUniversity of Southern CaliforniaLos AngelesUnited States
- Department of Biochemistry, Keck School of MedicineUniversity of Southern CaliforniaLos AngelesUnited States
| | - Lionel Cavin
- Department of Earth SciencesNatural History Museum of GenevaGenevaSwitzerland
| | - Robert E Maxson
- Department of Biochemistry, Keck School of MedicineUniversity of Southern CaliforniaLos AngelesUnited States
| | | | - J Gage Crump
- Department of Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative MedicineUniversity of Southern CaliforniaLos AngelesUnited States
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18
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Felice RN, Watanabe A, Cuff AR, Noirault E, Pol D, Witmer LM, Norell MA, O'Connor PM, Goswami A. Evolutionary Integration and Modularity in the Archosaur Cranium. Integr Comp Biol 2019; 59:371-382. [PMID: 31120528 DOI: 10.1093/icb/icz052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Complex structures, like the vertebrate skull, are composed of numerous elements or traits that must develop and evolve in a coordinated manner to achieve multiple functions. The strength of association among phenotypic traits (i.e., integration), and their organization into highly-correlated, semi-independent subunits termed modules, is a result of the pleiotropic and genetic correlations that generate traits. As such, patterns of integration and modularity are thought to be key factors constraining or facilitating the evolution of phenotypic disparity by influencing the patterns of variation upon which selection can act. It is often hypothesized that selection can reshape patterns of integration, parceling single structures into multiple modules or merging ancestrally semi-independent traits into a strongly correlated unit. However, evolutionary shifts in patterns of trait integration are seldom assessed in a unified quantitative framework. Here, we quantify patterns of evolutionary integration among regions of the archosaur skull to investigate whether patterns of cranial integration are conserved or variable across this diverse group. Using high-dimensional geometric morphometric data from 3D surface scans and computed tomography scans of modern birds (n = 352), fossil non-avian dinosaurs (n = 27), and modern and fossil mesoeucrocodylians (n = 38), we demonstrate that some aspects of cranial integration are conserved across these taxonomic groups, despite their major differences in cranial form, function, and development. All three groups are highly modular and consistently exhibit high integration within the occipital region. However, there are also substantial divergences in correlation patterns. Birds uniquely exhibit high correlation between the pterygoid and quadrate, components of the cranial kinesis apparatus, whereas the non-avian dinosaur quadrate is more closely associated with the jugal and quadratojugal. Mesoeucrocodylians exhibit a slightly more integrated facial skeleton overall than the other grades. Overall, patterns of trait integration are shown to be stable among archosaurs, which is surprising given the cranial diversity exhibited by the clade. At the same time, evolutionary innovations such as cranial kinesis that reorganize the structure and function of complex traits can result in modifications of trait correlations and modularity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan N Felice
- Centre for Integrative Anatomy, Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University College London, London, WC1E 6BT, UK.,Life Sciences Department, Vertebrates Division, Natural History Museum, London, SW7 5BD, UK
| | - Akinobu Watanabe
- Life Sciences Department, Vertebrates Division, Natural History Museum, London, SW7 5BD, UK.,Department of Anatomy, New York Institute of Technology College of Osteopathic Medicine, Old Westbury, NY 11568, USA.,Division of Paleontology, American Museum of Natural History, New York, NY 10024, USA
| | - Andrew R Cuff
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, North Mymms, Hertfordshire, AL9 7TA, UK
| | - Eve Noirault
- Life Sciences Department, Vertebrates Division, Natural History Museum, London, SW7 5BD, UK
| | - Diego Pol
- CONICET. Museo Paleontológico Egidio Feruglio, Av. Fontana 140, Trelew, Chubut, U9100GYO, Argentina
| | - Lawrence M Witmer
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Ohio University Heritage College of Osteopathic Medicine, Athens, OH, USA
| | - Mark A Norell
- Division of Paleontology, American Museum of Natural History, New York, NY 10024, USA
| | - Patrick M O'Connor
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Ohio University Heritage College of Osteopathic Medicine, Athens, OH, USA.,Ohio Center for Ecology and Evolutionary Studies, Ohio University, Athens, OH, USA
| | - Anjali Goswami
- Life Sciences Department, Vertebrates Division, Natural History Museum, London, SW7 5BD, UK.,Department of Genetics, Evolution, and Environment, University College London, London, WC1E 6BT, UK
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19
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Sabater González M. Skeletal Cartilage and Bone Formation, Composition, and Function in Small Mammals, Birds, and Reptiles. Vet Clin North Am Exot Anim Pract 2019; 22:123-134. [PMID: 30872001 DOI: 10.1016/j.cvex.2019.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Cartilage and bone are the main skeletal tissues in exotic vertebrates and are distinguished by their cells and the extracellular matrices they produce. Differences in cartilage and bone formation and growth exist among small mammals, birds, and reptiles. A basic knowledge of cartilage and bone formation, composition, and function in small mammals, birds, and reptiles commonly kept as pets, and the major differences observed among species, is necessary to correctly evaluate and treat cartilage and bone lesions in these groups of animals.
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20
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Marshall AF, Bardua C, Gower DJ, Wilkinson M, Sherratt E, Goswami A. High-density three-dimensional morphometric analyses support conserved static (intraspecific) modularity in caecilian (Amphibia: Gymnophiona) crania. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2019. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/blz001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Ashleigh F Marshall
- Department of Genetics, Evolution and Environment, University College London, London, UK
- Department of Life Sciences, The Natural History Museum, London, UK
| | - Carla Bardua
- Department of Genetics, Evolution and Environment, University College London, London, UK
- Department of Life Sciences, The Natural History Museum, London, UK
| | - David J Gower
- Department of Life Sciences, The Natural History Museum, London, UK
| | - Mark Wilkinson
- Department of Life Sciences, The Natural History Museum, London, UK
| | - Emma Sherratt
- Department of Life Sciences, The Natural History Museum, London, UK
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia
| | - Anjali Goswami
- Department of Genetics, Evolution and Environment, University College London, London, UK
- Department of Life Sciences, The Natural History Museum, London, UK
- Department of Earth Sciences, University College London, Gower Street, London, UK
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21
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Dinosaur ossification centres in embryonic birds uncover developmental evolution of the skull. Nat Ecol Evol 2018; 2:1966-1973. [DOI: 10.1038/s41559-018-0713-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2018] [Accepted: 10/05/2018] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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22
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Teng CS, Ting MC, Farmer DT, Brockop M, Maxson RE, Crump JG. Altered bone growth dynamics prefigure craniosynostosis in a zebrafish model of Saethre-Chotzen syndrome. eLife 2018; 7:37024. [PMID: 30375332 PMCID: PMC6207424 DOI: 10.7554/elife.37024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2018] [Accepted: 10/14/2018] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Cranial sutures separate the skull bones and house stem cells for bone growth and repair. In Saethre-Chotzen syndrome, mutations in TCF12 or TWIST1 ablate a specific suture, the coronal. This suture forms at a neural-crest/mesoderm interface in mammals and a mesoderm/mesoderm interface in zebrafish. Despite this difference, we show that combinatorial loss of TCF12 and TWIST1 homologs in zebrafish also results in specific loss of the coronal suture. Sequential bone staining reveals an initial, directional acceleration of bone production in the mutant skull, with subsequent localized stalling of bone growth prefiguring coronal suture loss. Mouse genetics further reveal requirements for Twist1 and Tcf12 in both the frontal and parietal bones for suture patency, and to maintain putative progenitors in the coronal region. These findings reveal conservation of coronal suture formation despite evolutionary shifts in embryonic origins, and suggest that the coronal suture might be especially susceptible to imbalances in progenitor maintenance and osteoblast differentiation. Some of the most common birth defects involve improper development of the head and face. One such birth defect is called craniosynostosis. Normally, an infant’s skull bones are not fully fused together. Instead, they are held together by soft tissue that allows the baby’s skull to more easily pass through the birth canal. This tissue also houses specialized cells called stem cells that allow the brain and skull to grow with the child. But in craniosynostosis these stem cells behave abnormally, which fuses the skull bones together and prevents the skull and brain from growing properly during childhood. One form of craniosynostosis called Saethre-Chotzen syndrome is caused by mutations in one of two genes that ensure the proper separation of two bones in the roof of the skull. Mice with mutations in the mouse versions of these genes develop the same problem and are used to study this condition. Mouse studies have looked mostly at what happens after birth. Studies looking at what happens in embryos with these mutations could help scientists learn more. One way to do so would be to genetically engineer zebrafish with the equivalent mutations. This is because zebrafish embryos are transparent and grow outside their mother’s body, making it easier for scientists to watch them develop. Now, Teng et al. have grown zebrafish with mutations in the zebrafish versions of the genes that cause Saethre-Chotzen syndrome. In the experiments, imaging tools were used to observe the live fish as they developed. This showed that the stem cells in their skulls become abnormal much earlier than previous studies had suggested. Teng et al. also showed that similar stem cells are responsible for growth of the skull in zebrafish and mice. Babies with craniosynostosis often need multiple, risky surgeries to separate their skull bones and allow their brain and head to grow. Unfortunately, these bones often fuse again because they have abnormal stem cells. Teng et al. provide new information on what goes wrong in these stem cells. Hopefully, this new information will help scientists to one day correct the defective stem cells in babies with craniosynostosis, thus reducing the number of surgeries needed to correct the problem.
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Affiliation(s)
- Camilla S Teng
- Department of Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, United States.,Department of Biochemistry, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, United States
| | - Man-Chun Ting
- Department of Biochemistry, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, United States
| | - D'Juan T Farmer
- Department of Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, United States
| | - Mia Brockop
- Department of Biochemistry, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, United States
| | - Robert E Maxson
- Department of Biochemistry, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, United States
| | - J Gage Crump
- Department of Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, United States
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23
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Stange M, Núñez-León D, Sánchez-Villagra MR, Jensen P, Wilson LAB. Morphological variation under domestication: how variable are chickens? ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2018; 5:180993. [PMID: 30225085 PMCID: PMC6124038 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.180993] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2018] [Accepted: 07/04/2018] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
The process of domestication has long fascinated evolutionary biologists, yielding insights into the rapidity with which selection can alter behaviour and morphology. Previous studies on dogs, cattle and pigeons have demonstrated that domesticated forms show greater magnitudes of morphological variation than their wild ancestors. Here, we quantify variation in skull morphology, modularity and integration in chickens and compare those to the wild fowl using three-dimensional geometric morphometrics and multivariate statistics. Similar to other domesticated species, chickens exhibit a greater magnitude of variation in shape compared with their ancestors. The most variable part of the chicken skull is the cranial vault, being formed by dermal and neural crest-derived bones, its form possibly related to brain shape variation in chickens, especially in crested breeds. Neural crest-derived portions of the skull exhibit a higher amount of variation. Further, we find that the chicken skull is strongly integrated, confirming previous studies in birds, in contrast to the presence of modularity and decreased integration in mammals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Madlen Stange
- Paläontologisches Institut und Museum, Universität Zürich, Karl Schmid-Strasse 4, 8006 Zürich, Switzerland
- Authors for correspondence: Madlen Stange e-mail:
| | - Daniel Núñez-León
- Paläontologisches Institut und Museum, Universität Zürich, Karl Schmid-Strasse 4, 8006 Zürich, Switzerland
| | | | - Per Jensen
- AVIAN Behavioural Genomics and Physiology Group, IFM Biology, Linköping University, 581 83 Linköping, Sweden
| | - Laura A. B. Wilson
- Palaeontology, Geobiology and Earth Archives Research Centre, School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia
- Authors for correspondence: Laura A. B. Wilson e-mail:
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24
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Wood TWP, Nakamura T. Problems in Fish-to-Tetrapod Transition: Genetic Expeditions Into Old Specimens. Front Cell Dev Biol 2018; 6:70. [PMID: 30062096 PMCID: PMC6054942 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2018.00070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2018] [Accepted: 06/15/2018] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The fish-to-tetrapod transition is one of the fundamental problems in evolutionary biology. A significant amount of paleontological data has revealed the morphological trajectories of skeletons, such as those of the skull, vertebrae, and appendages in vertebrate history. Shifts in bone differentiation, from dermal to endochondral bones, are key to explaining skeletal transformations during the transition from water to land. However, the genetic underpinnings underlying the evolution of dermal and endochondral bones are largely missing. Recent genetic approaches utilizing model organisms—zebrafish, frogs, chickens, and mice—reveal the molecular mechanisms underlying vertebrate skeletal development and provide new insights for how the skeletal system has evolved. Currently, our experimental horizons to test evolutionary hypotheses are being expanded to non-model organisms with state-of-the-art techniques in molecular biology and imaging. An integration of functional genomics, developmental genetics, and high-resolution CT scanning into evolutionary inquiries allows us to reevaluate our understanding of old specimens. Here, we summarize the current perspectives in genetic programs underlying the development and evolution of the dermal skull roof, shoulder girdle, and appendages. The ratio shifts of dermal and endochondral bones, and its underlying mechanisms, during the fish-to-tetrapod transition are particularly emphasized. Recent studies have suggested the novel cell origins of dermal bones, and the interchangeability between dermal and endochondral bones, obscuring the ontogenetic distinction of these two types of bones. Assimilation of ontogenetic knowledge of dermal and endochondral bones from different structures demands revisions of the prevalent consensus in the evolutionary mechanisms of vertebrate skeletal shifts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas W P Wood
- Department of Genetics, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, NJ, United States
| | - Tetsuya Nakamura
- Department of Genetics, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, NJ, United States
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Abstract
Studies reconstructing morphological evolution have long relied on simple representations of organismal form or on limited sampling of species, hindering a comprehensive understanding of the factors shaping biological diversity. Here, we combine high-resolution 3D quantification of skull shape with dense taxonomic sampling across a major vertebrate clade, birds, to demonstrate that the avian skull is formed of multiple semi-independent regions that epitomize mosaic evolution, with cranial regions and major lineages evolving with distinct rates and modes. We further show that the evolvability of different cranial regions reflects their disparate embryonic origins. Finally, we present a hypothetical reconstruction of the ancestral bird skull using this high-resolution shape data to generate a detailed estimate of extinct forms in the absence of well-preserved three-dimensional fossils. Mosaic evolution, which results from multiple influences shaping morphological traits and can lead to the presence of a mixture of ancestral and derived characteristics, has been frequently invoked in describing evolutionary patterns in birds. Mosaicism implies the hierarchical organization of organismal traits into semiautonomous subsets, or modules, which reflect differential genetic and developmental origins. Here, we analyze mosaic evolution in the avian skull using high-dimensional 3D surface morphometric data across a broad phylogenetic sample encompassing nearly all extant families. We find that the avian cranium is highly modular, consisting of seven independently evolving anatomical regions. The face and cranial vault evolve faster than other regions, showing several bursts of rapid evolution. Other modules evolve more slowly following an early burst. Both the evolutionary rate and disparity of skull modules are associated with their developmental origin, with regions derived from the anterior mandibular-stream cranial neural crest or from multiple embryonic cell populations evolving most quickly and into a greater variety of forms. Strong integration of traits is also associated with low evolutionary rate and low disparity. Individual clades are characterized by disparate evolutionary rates among cranial regions. For example, Psittaciformes (parrots) exhibit high evolutionary rates throughout the skull, but their close relatives, Falconiformes, exhibit rapid evolution in only the rostrum. Our dense sampling of cranial shape variation demonstrates that the bird skull has evolved in a mosaic fashion reflecting the developmental origins of cranial regions, with a semi-independent tempo and mode of evolution across phenotypic modules facilitating this hyperdiverse evolutionary radiation.
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Warth P, Hilton EJ, Naumann B, Olsson L, Konstantinidis P. Development of the skull and pectoral girdle in Siberian sturgeon,Acipenser baerii, and Russian sturgeon,Acipenser gueldenstaedtii(Acipenseriformes: Acipenseridae). J Morphol 2017; 278:418-442. [DOI: 10.1002/jmor.20653] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2016] [Revised: 12/23/2016] [Accepted: 12/30/2016] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Peter Warth
- Institut für Spezielle Zoologie und Evolutionsbiologie mit Phyletischem Museum, Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena; Germany
| | - Eric J. Hilton
- Department of Fisheries Science; Virginia Institute of Marine Science, College of William & Mary; Gloucester Point Virginia
| | - Benjamin Naumann
- Institut für Spezielle Zoologie und Evolutionsbiologie mit Phyletischem Museum, Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena; Germany
| | - Lennart Olsson
- Institut für Spezielle Zoologie und Evolutionsbiologie mit Phyletischem Museum, Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena; Germany
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