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Laojun S, Changbunjong T, Chaiphongpachara T. Population genetic structure and wing geometric morphometrics of the filarial vector Armigeres subalbatus (Diptera: Culicidae) in Thailand. Acta Trop 2024; 253:107171. [PMID: 38447704 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2024.107171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2024] [Revised: 03/03/2024] [Accepted: 03/04/2024] [Indexed: 03/08/2024]
Abstract
Armigeres subalbatus (Diptera: Culicidae) is a mosquito species of significant medical and veterinary importance. It is widely distributed across Southeast and East Asia and is commonly found throughout Thailand. This study assessed the genetic diversity and population structure of Ar. subalbatus in Thailand using the cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) gene sequences. Additionally, wing shape variations among these populations were examined using geometric morphometrics (GM). Our results demonstrated that the overall haplotype diversity (Hd) was 0.634, and the nucleotide diversity (π) was 0.0019. Significant negative values in neutrality tests (p < 0.05) indicate that the Ar. subalbatus populations in Thailand are undergoing a phase of expansion following a bottleneck event. The mismatch distribution test suggests that the populations may have started expanding approximately 16,678 years ago. Pairwise genetic differentiation among the 12 populations based on Fst revealed significant differences in 32 pairs (p < 0.05), with the degree of differentiation ranging from 0.000 to 0.419. The GM analysis of wing shape also indicated significant differences in nearly all pairs (p < 0.05), except for between populations from Nakhon Pathom and Samut Songkhram, and between those from Chiang Mai and Mae Hong Son, suggesting no significant difference due to their similar environmental settings. These findings enhance our understanding of the population structure and phenotypic adaptations of mosquito vectors, providing vital insights for the formulation of more efficacious vector control strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sedthapong Laojun
- Department of Public Health and Health Promotion, College of Allied Health Sciences, Suan Sunandha Rajabhat University, Samut Songkhram 75000, Thailand
| | - Tanasak Changbunjong
- Department of Pre-Clinic and Applied Animal Science, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Mahidol University, Nakhon Pathom 73170, Thailand; The Monitoring and Surveillance Center for Zoonotic Diseases in Wildlife and Exotic Animals (MoZWE), Faculty of Veterinary Science, Mahidol University, Nakhon Pathom 73170, Thailand
| | - Tanawat Chaiphongpachara
- Department of Public Health and Health Promotion, College of Allied Health Sciences, Suan Sunandha Rajabhat University, Samut Songkhram 75000, Thailand.
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Laojun S, Sontigun N, Chaiphongpachara T. Influence of insular conditions on wing phenotypic variation in two dominant mosquito vectors, Aedes albopictus and Armigeres subalbatus (Diptera: Culicidae), in the border archipelagos of Thailand. MEDICAL AND VETERINARY ENTOMOLOGY 2024. [PMID: 38641881 DOI: 10.1111/mve.12722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2024] [Accepted: 04/05/2024] [Indexed: 04/21/2024]
Abstract
Insects geographically separated into island and mainland populations often exhibit phenotypic variations, a phenomenon known as insular conditions. These conditions can lead to rapid evolutionary changes that affect the morphological characteristics of mosquito vectors. Nevertheless, studies that specifically examine phenotype differences between island and mainland mosquito populations have been limited. In this study, wing variation in size and shape was investigated using the geometric morphometric (GM) technique in two dominant mosquito vectors, Aedes albopictus and Armigeres subalbatus, in the Ranong and Trat archipelagos of Thailand. Significant differences in average wing centroid size (CS) were found in 6 out of 15 population pairs for Ae. albopictus (p < 0.05) and in 5 population pairs for Ar. subalbatus (p < 0.05). After removing the allometric effect, canonical variate analyses (CVA) based on wing shape analysis revealed overlap across all populations for both Ae. albopictus and Ar. subalbatus. However, the statistical analysis indicated that Ar. subalbatus exhibited wing shape differences across all populations (p < 0.05), and most Ae. albopictus populations also displayed distinct wing shapes (p < 0.05), except for the populations from Chang Island and the mainland of Ranong, which showed no significant differences (p > 0.05). These findings enhance our understanding of mosquito adaptability in island regions and provide valuable data for the surveillance and monitoring of vector evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sedthapong Laojun
- Department of Public Health and Health Promotion, College of Allied Health Sciences, Suan Sunandha Rajabhat University, Samut Songkhram, Thailand
| | - Narin Sontigun
- Akkhraratchakumari Veterinary College, Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat, Thailand
- One Health Research Center, Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat, Thailand
| | - Tanawat Chaiphongpachara
- Department of Public Health and Health Promotion, College of Allied Health Sciences, Suan Sunandha Rajabhat University, Samut Songkhram, Thailand
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Kampango A, Smith TA, Abílio AP, Machoe EA, Matusse JF, Pinto J, McCall PJ. The Shockwè trap: a human-baited exposure-free device for surveillance and behaviour studies of anthropophilic vectors. Wellcome Open Res 2023; 8:455. [PMID: 38644931 PMCID: PMC11031644 DOI: 10.12688/wellcomeopenres.19963.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/25/2023] [Indexed: 04/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Background: The human biting rate (MBR) and entomological inoculation rate (EIR) are common parameters routinely used to measure the risk of malaria transmission. Both parameters can be estimated using human landing catches (HLC). Although it is considered the gold-standard, HLC puts collectors at higher risk of infection with mosquito-transmitted pathogens. Methods: A novel exposure-free host-seeking mosquito electrocution trap, the Shockwè trap (SHK), was developed and its efficiency for monitoring mosquito community composition and abundance was compared with human landing catches (HLC) as the gold-standard. Field experiments were performed in Massavasse village, southern Mozambique. Simultaneous indoor and outdoor collections of nocturnal host-seeking mosquitoes were carried out using the SHK and HLC methods. The relative sampling efficiency of SHK was estimated as the ratio of the numbers of mosquitoes caught in SHK compared HLC. Proportionality and density-dependence between SHK and HLC catches were estimated by mean of Bayesian regression approaches. Results: A total of 69,758 and 27,359 host-seeking mosquitoes comprising nineteen species and four genera, were collected by HLC and SHK respectively. In general, SHK and HLC sampled similar numbers of mosquito species, with the exceptions of the least common species Aedes sudanensis, Ae. subargenteus, and Coquillettidia versicolor that were caught only by HLC. The relative sampling efficiency and proportionality between SHK and matched HLC catches varied greatly between species and collection site. However, all mosquitoes collected by SHK were unfed, confirming the Shockwè trap design's performance and reliability as a successful mosquito exposure free sampling approach. Conclusions: Results demonstrate that SHK is a safe and reliable human-exposure free device for monitoring the occurrence of a wide range of mosquito, including major malaria and arboviruses vector species. However, improvements are needed to increase its sampling efficiency for less abundant mosquito species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ayubo Kampango
- Vectors Study Unit, Instituto Nacional de Saúde, Maputo Province, Vila de Marracuene, Mozambique
| | - Thomas A. Smith
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Allschwil, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Ana Paula Abílio
- Vectors Study Unit, Instituto Nacional de Saúde, Maputo Province, Vila de Marracuene, Mozambique
| | - Elias Alberto Machoe
- Vectors Study Unit, Instituto Nacional de Saúde, Maputo Province, Vila de Marracuene, Mozambique
| | - Júlio Francisco Matusse
- Vectors Study Unit, Instituto Nacional de Saúde, Maputo Province, Vila de Marracuene, Mozambique
| | - João Pinto
- Global Health and Tropical Medicine, Institute of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Philip J. McCall
- Department of Vector Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, UK
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4
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Lopez-Reyes K, Lankheet MJ, van Tol RWHM, Butler RC, Teulon DAJ, Armstrong KF. Tracking the flight and landing behaviour of western flower thrips in response to single and two-colour cues. Sci Rep 2023; 13:14178. [PMID: 37648681 PMCID: PMC10469208 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-37400-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2023] [Accepted: 06/21/2023] [Indexed: 09/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Real-time 3D tracking and high-speed videography was used to examine the behaviour of a worldwide greenhouse pest, the western flower thrips (WFT), in response to different colours in the context of improving trap design. Measurements were taken of the number of landings on, and flight activity near, a lamp containing two LEDs of either the same colour or a combination of two colours presented side by side. Main findings show that landing patterns of WFT are different between colours, with landings on UV(+ red) as highly attractive stimulus being mostly distributed at the bottom half of the lamp, while for yellow also as very attractive and green as a 'neutral' stimulus, landings were clearly on the upper rim of the lamp. Additionally, a positive interaction with the UV-A(+ red) and yellow combination elicited the highest number of landings and flight time in front of the LED lamp. Conversely, a negative interaction was observed with decreased landings and flight time found for yellow when blue was present as the adjacent colour. Overall, differences between treatments were less obvious for flight times compared to number of landings, with tracking data suggesting that WFT might use different colours to orientate at different distances as they approach a visual stimulus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karla Lopez-Reyes
- Department of Pest-Management and Conservation, Lincoln University, Lincoln, 7647, New Zealand.
| | - Martin J Lankheet
- Experimental Zoology, Animal Sciences, Wageningen University and Research, PO Box 338, Wageningen, 6700AH, The Netherlands
| | - Robert W H M van Tol
- Plant and Health Systems, Wageningen University and Research, PO Box 69, Wageningen, 6700AB, The Netherlands
- Bug Research Consultancy, Herendaal 1, Maastricht, 6228GV, The Netherlands
| | - Ruth C Butler
- StatsWork 2022 Limited, 48 Verdeco Boulevard, Lincoln, 7608, New Zealand
| | - David A J Teulon
- The New Zealand Institute for Plant and Food Research Limited, Private Bag 4704, Christchurch, New Zealand
- Better Border Biosecurity, Lincoln, New Zealand
| | - Karen F Armstrong
- Department of Pest-Management and Conservation, Lincoln University, Lincoln, 7647, New Zealand
- Better Border Biosecurity, Lincoln, New Zealand
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Javed N, Paradkar PN, Bhatti A. Flight behaviour monitoring and quantification of aedes aegypti using convolution neural network. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0284819. [PMID: 37471341 PMCID: PMC10359002 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0284819] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2022] [Accepted: 04/10/2023] [Indexed: 07/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Mosquito-borne diseases cause a huge burden on public health worldwide. The viruses that cause these diseases impact the behavioural traits of mosquitoes, including locomotion and feeding. Understanding these traits can help in improving existing epidemiological models and developing effective mosquito traps. However, it is difficult to understand the flight behaviour of mosquitoes due to their small sizes, complicated poses, and seemingly random moving patterns. Currently, no open-source tool is available that can detect and track resting or flying mosquitoes. Our work presented in this paper provides a detection and trajectory estimation method using the Mask RCNN algorithm and spline interpolation, which can efficiently detect mosquitoes and track their trajectories with higher accuracy. The method does not require special equipment and works excellently even with low-resolution videos. Considering the mosquito size, the proposed method's detection performance is validated using a tracker error and a custom metric that considers the mean distance between positions (estimated and ground truth), pooled standard deviation, and average accuracy. The results showed that the proposed method could successfully detect and track the flying (≈ 96% accuracy) as well as resting (100% accuracy) mosquitoes. The performance can be impacted in the case of occlusions and background clutters. Overall, this research serves as an efficient open-source tool to facilitate further examination of mosquito behavioural traits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nouman Javed
- Institute for Intelligent Systems Research and Innovation, Deakin University, Geelong, Victoria, Australia
- CSIRO Health & Biosecurity, Australian Centre for Disease Preparedness, Geelong, Victoria, Australia
| | - Prasad N Paradkar
- CSIRO Health & Biosecurity, Australian Centre for Disease Preparedness, Geelong, Victoria, Australia
| | - Asim Bhatti
- Institute for Intelligent Systems Research and Innovation, Deakin University, Geelong, Victoria, Australia
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6
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Dickerson AK, Muijres FT, Pieters R. Using Videography to Study the Biomechanics and Behavior of Freely Moving Mosquitoes. Cold Spring Harb Protoc 2023; 2023:84-89. [PMID: 36167673 DOI: 10.1101/pdb.top107676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Female mosquitoes of most species require a blood meal for egg development. When biting a human host to collect this blood meal, they can spread dangerous diseases such as malaria, yellow fever, or dengue. Researchers use videography to study many aspects of mosquito behavior, including in-flight host-seeking, takeoff, and landing behaviors, as well as probing and blood feeding, and more. Here, we introduce protocols on how to use videography to capture and analyze mosquito movements at high spatial and temporal resolution, in two and three dimensions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew K Dickerson
- Department of Mechanical, Aerospace, and Biomedical Engineering, University of Tennessee, Tennessee 37996, USA
| | - Florian T Muijres
- Department of Experimental Zoology, Wageningen University, 6708 PB Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Remco Pieters
- Department of Experimental Zoology, Wageningen University, 6708 PB Wageningen, the Netherlands
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7
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Nakata T, Simões P, Walker SM, Russell IJ, Bomphrey RJ. Auditory sensory range of male mosquitoes for the detection of female flight sound. J R Soc Interface 2022; 19:20220285. [PMID: 36000227 PMCID: PMC9399701 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2022.0285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Male mosquitoes detect and localize conspecific females by their flight-tones using the Johnston's organ (JO), which detects antennal deflections under the influence of local particle motion. Acoustic behaviours of mosquitoes and their JO physiology have been investigated extensively within the frequency domain, yet the auditory sensory range and the behaviour of males at the initiation of phonotactic flights are not well known. In this study, we predict a maximum spatial sensory envelope for flying Culex quinquefasciatus by integrating the physiological tuning response of the male JO with female aeroacoustic signatures derived from numerical simulations. Our sensory envelope predictions were tested with a behavioural assay of free-flying males responding to a female-like artificial pure tone. The minimum detectable particle velocity observed during flight tests was in good agreement with our theoretical prediction formed by the peak JO sensitivity measured in previous studies. The iso-surface describing the minimal detectable particle velocity represents the quantitative auditory sensory range of males and is directional with respect to the female body orientation. Our results illuminate the intricacy of the mating behaviour and point to the importance of observing the body orientation of flying mosquitoes to understand fully the sensory ecology of conspecific communication.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Simon M Walker
- Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
| | - Ian J Russell
- Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Brighton, Brighton, UK
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8
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Mosquito flight: Escaping attacks in dim light. Curr Biol 2022; 32:R279-R281. [PMID: 35349815 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2022.01.078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
To avoid fast attackers, animals must move somewhere their pursuer cannot follow or does not expect. A new study shows that female mosquitoes of either a diurnal or a nocturnal species each exhibit a distinct escape strategy matched to the light level they experience as they hunt for blood.
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9
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Diurnal and nocturnal mosquitoes escape looming threats using distinct flight strategies. Curr Biol 2022; 32:1232-1246.e5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2022.01.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2021] [Revised: 12/21/2021] [Accepted: 01/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Kim DY, Leepasert T, Bangs MJ, Chareonviriyaphap T. Dose-Response Assay for Synthetic Mosquito (Diptera: Culicidae) Attractant Using a High-Throughput Screening System. INSECTS 2021; 12:insects12040355. [PMID: 33923471 PMCID: PMC8073532 DOI: 10.3390/insects12040355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2021] [Revised: 04/01/2021] [Accepted: 04/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Simple Summary Entomological surveillance is important to evaluate vector management interventions. However, collecting adult mosquitoes using direct human bait is controversial and often discouraged because of potential infection risk. Alternatively, active and passive trapping methods are available. Female mosquitoes detect human host cues such as body heat, carbon dioxide, and other volatile body emanations using olfactory sensilla to direct movement to a host. Attractive chemical lures have been identified and evaluated using a variety of olfactometric methods to increase trap production and efficiency. In this study, we evaluated a simple olfactometer without need of airflow. To ‘optimize’ a commercial mosquito attractant, 10 different doses of product, the Biogents-lure (BG-lureTM), were compared. Results showed dose-dependent responses with 0.005 g with the highest attraction for Aedes aegypti, while doses of 0.2 g and above produced a repellent response. There was no significantly different response behavior between permethrin-susceptible and -resistant Ae. aegypti. Culex quinquefasciatus showed significantly different responses compared to Ae. aegypti by producing attraction over four times a wider range of amounts. These results demonstrate a simple olfactometer device to screen potential chemical attractants without use of an air-plume, thus expanding testing capabilities beyond more sophisticated laboratory settings. Abstract Natural volatile host cues play a critical role for mosquito orientation and locating a blood source for egg production. Similar olfactory activation responses have allowed the use and development of artificial chemical attractants to lure mosquitoes to trapping devices. Using a pre-formulated commercial product mixture of different attractant chemicals, a high-throughput screening system (HITSS) is used to screen varying doses of chemical required to activate behavioral responses. Two strains of Aedes aegypti (L.): permethrin-susceptible (USDA) and -resistant (Pu Teuy) phenotypes and one Culex quinquefasciatus Say. (NIH) laboratory strain were tested. Overall, mosquitoes showed repellency between 1.0 g and to 10.0 g dose of each compound. However, by progressively reducing the dose, Cx. quinquefasciatus showed a greater positive percent attraction (88.9%) at 0.025 g, whereas the USDA and Pu Teuy Ae. aegypti produced optimum attractant activation at 0.005 g (72.6% and 58.9%, respectively) without significant difference within species (p > 0.05). In parallel control assays, Cx. quinquefasciatus was significantly attracted to 1 g of dry ice (carbon dioxide) (76%) more than Ae. aegypti (USDA) (12.2%). The HITSS was originally designed to measure three chemical actions to sublethal concentrations of chemicals by mosquitoes: toxicity and the two primary behavior avoidance responses (contact excitation and spatial repellency). These findings demonstrate that the HITSS assay, with only minor modifications, allows comparison screening of candidate compounds as potential attractants for anemotactic responses under laboratory-controlled conditions. Further investigations will be required to equate measurements obtained from controlled laboratory assays to more varied field conditions for attracting natural mosquito populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dae-Yun Kim
- Department of Entomology, Faculty of Agriculture, Kasetsart Univeristy, Bangkok 10900, Thailand; (D.-Y.K.); (M.J.B.)
| | - Theerachart Leepasert
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Kasetsart University, Bangkok 10900, Thailand;
| | - Michael J. Bangs
- Department of Entomology, Faculty of Agriculture, Kasetsart Univeristy, Bangkok 10900, Thailand; (D.-Y.K.); (M.J.B.)
| | - Theeraphap Chareonviriyaphap
- Department of Entomology, Faculty of Agriculture, Kasetsart Univeristy, Bangkok 10900, Thailand; (D.-Y.K.); (M.J.B.)
- Correspondence:
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11
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Carnaghi M, Belmain SR, Hopkins RJ, Hawkes FM. Multimodal synergisms in host stimuli drive landing response in malaria mosquitoes. Sci Rep 2021; 11:7379. [PMID: 33795798 PMCID: PMC8016827 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-86772-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2020] [Accepted: 03/18/2021] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Anopheles mosquitoes transmit malaria, which affects one-fifth of the world population. A comprehensive understanding of mosquito behaviour is essential for the development of novel tools for vector control and surveillance. Despite abundant research on mosquito behaviour, little is known on the stimuli that drive malaria vectors during the landing phase of host-seeking. Using behavioural assays with a multimodal step approach we quantified both the individual and the combined effect of three host-associated stimuli in eliciting landing in Anopheles coluzzii females. We demonstrated that visual, olfactory and thermal sensory stimuli interact synergistically to increase the landing response. Furthermore, if considering only the final outcome (i.e. landing response), our insect model can bypass the absence of either a thermal or a visual stimulus, provided that at least one of these is presented simultaneously with the olfactory stimuli, suggesting that landing is the result of a flexible but accurate stimuli integration. These results have important implications for the development of mosquito control and surveillance tools.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manuela Carnaghi
- grid.55594.38Department of Agriculture Health and Environment, Natural Resources Institute, University of Greenwich at Medway, Kent, ME7 4TB UK
| | - Steven R. Belmain
- grid.55594.38Department of Agriculture Health and Environment, Natural Resources Institute, University of Greenwich at Medway, Kent, ME7 4TB UK
| | - Richard J. Hopkins
- grid.55594.38Department of Agriculture Health and Environment, Natural Resources Institute, University of Greenwich at Medway, Kent, ME7 4TB UK
| | - Frances M. Hawkes
- grid.55594.38Department of Agriculture Health and Environment, Natural Resources Institute, University of Greenwich at Medway, Kent, ME7 4TB UK
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12
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Dormont L, Mulatier M, Carrasco D, Cohuet A. Mosquito Attractants. J Chem Ecol 2021; 47:351-393. [PMID: 33725235 DOI: 10.1007/s10886-021-01261-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2020] [Revised: 02/18/2021] [Accepted: 03/02/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Vector control and personal protection against anthropophilic mosquitoes mainly rely on the use of insecticides and repellents. The search for mosquito-attractive semiochemicals has been the subject of intense studies for decades, and new compounds or odor blends are regularly proposed as lures for odor-baited traps. We present a comprehensive and up-to-date review of all the studies that have evaluated the attractiveness of volatiles to mosquitoes, including individual chemical compounds, synthetic blends of compounds, or natural host or plant odors. A total of 388 studies were analysed, and our survey highlights the existence of 105 attractants (77 volatile compounds, 17 organism odors, and 11 synthetic blends) that have been proved effective in attracting one or several mosquito species. The exhaustive list of these attractants is presented in various tables, while the most common mosquito attractants - for which effective attractiveness has been demonstrated in numerous studies - are discussed throughout the text. The increasing knowledge on compounds attractive to mosquitoes may now serve as the basis for complementary vector control strategies, such as those involving lure-and-kill traps, or the development of mass trapping. This review also points out the necessity of further improving the search for new volatile attractants, such as new compound blends in specific ratios, considering that mosquito attraction to odors may vary over the life of the mosquito or among species. Finally, the use of mosquito attractants will undoubtedly have an increasingly important role to play in future integrated vector management programs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurent Dormont
- CEFE, Univ Paul Valéry Montpellier 3, CNRS, Univ Montpellier, EPHE, IRD, Montpellier, France.
| | - Margaux Mulatier
- Institut Pasteur de Guadeloupe, Laboratoire d'étude sur le contrôle des vecteurs (LeCOV), Lieu-Dit Morne Jolivièrex, 97139, Les Abymes, Guadeloupe, France
| | - David Carrasco
- MIVEGEC, Univ. Montpellier, IRD, CNRS, Montpellier, France
| | - Anna Cohuet
- MIVEGEC, Univ. Montpellier, IRD, CNRS, Montpellier, France
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13
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Hinze A, Lantz J, Hill SR, Ignell R. Mosquito Host Seeking in 3D Using a Versatile Climate-Controlled Wind Tunnel System. Front Behav Neurosci 2021; 15:643693. [PMID: 33776664 PMCID: PMC7991727 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2021.643693] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2020] [Accepted: 02/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Future anthropogenic climate change is predicted to impact sensory-driven behaviors. Building on recent improvements in computational power and tracking technology, we have developed a versatile climate-controlled wind tunnel system, in which to study the effect of climate parameters, including temperature, precipitation, and elevated greenhouse gas levels, on odor-mediated behaviors in insects. To establish a baseline for future studies, we here analyzed the host-seeking behavior of the major malaria vector mosquito, Anopheles gambiae sensu strico, to human odor and carbon dioxide (CO2), under tightly controlled climatic conditions, and isolated from potential background contamination by the presence of an experimenter. When presented with a combination of human foot odor and CO2 (case study I), mosquitoes engaged in faster crosswind flight, spent more time in the filamentous odor plume and targeted the odor source more successfully. In contrast, female An. gambiae s. s. presented with different concentrations of CO2 alone, did not display host-seeking behavior (case study II). These observations support previous findings on the role of human host-associated cues in host seeking and confirm the role of CO2 as a synergist, but not a host-seeking cue on its own. Future studies are aimed at investigating the effect of climate change on odor-mediated behavior in mosquitoes and other insects. Moreover, the system will be used to investigate detection and processing of olfactory information in various behavioral contexts, by providing a fine-scale analysis of flight behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annika Hinze
- Disease Vector Group, Chemical Ecology, Department of Plant Protection Biology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Alnarp, Sweden
| | - Jörgen Lantz
- Jörgen Lantz Engineering Consulting Firm, Alnarp, Sweden
| | - Sharon R Hill
- Disease Vector Group, Chemical Ecology, Department of Plant Protection Biology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Alnarp, Sweden.,Max Planck Centre Next Generation Chemical Ecology, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Rickard Ignell
- Disease Vector Group, Chemical Ecology, Department of Plant Protection Biology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Alnarp, Sweden.,Max Planck Centre Next Generation Chemical Ecology, Uppsala, Sweden
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14
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Denz A, Njoroge MM, Tambwe MM, Champagne C, Okumu F, van Loon JJA, Hiscox A, Saddler A, Fillinger U, Moore SJ, Chitnis N. Predicting the impact of outdoor vector control interventions on malaria transmission intensity from semi-field studies. Parasit Vectors 2021; 14:64. [PMID: 33472661 PMCID: PMC7819244 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-020-04560-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2020] [Accepted: 12/21/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Semi-field experiments with human landing catch (HLC) measure as the outcome are an important step in the development of novel vector control interventions against outdoor transmission of malaria since they provide good estimates of personal protection. However, it is often infeasible to determine whether the reduction in HLC counts is due to mosquito mortality or repellency, especially considering that spatial repellents based on volatile pyrethroids might induce both. Due to the vastly different impact of repellency and mortality on transmission, the community-level impact of spatial repellents can not be estimated from such semi-field experiments. METHODS We present a new stochastic model that is able to estimate for any product inhibiting outdoor biting, its repelling effect versus its killing and disarming (preventing host-seeking until the next night) effects, based only on time-stratified HLC data from controlled semi-field experiments. For parameter inference, a Bayesian hierarchical model is used to account for nightly variation of semi-field experimental conditions. We estimate the impact of the products on the vectorial capacity of the given Anopheles species using an existing mathematical model. With this methodology, we analysed data from recent semi-field studies in Kenya and Tanzania on the impact of transfluthrin-treated eave ribbons, the odour-baited Suna trap and their combination (push-pull system) on HLC of Anopheles arabiensis in the peridomestic area. RESULTS Complementing previous analyses of personal protection, we found that the transfluthrin-treated eave ribbons act mainly by killing or disarming mosquitoes. Depending on the actual ratio of disarming versus killing, the vectorial capacity of An. arabiensis is reduced by 41 to 96% at 70% coverage with the transfluthrin-treated eave ribbons and by 38 to 82% at the same coverage with the push-pull system, under the assumption of a similar impact on biting indoors compared to outdoors. CONCLUSIONS The results of this analysis of semi-field data suggest that transfluthrin-treated eave ribbons are a promising tool against malaria transmission by An. arabiensis in the peridomestic area, since they provide both personal and community protection. Our modelling framework can estimate the community-level impact of any tool intervening during the mosquito host-seeking state using data from only semi-field experiments with time-stratified HLC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrian Denz
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, 4051, Basel, Switzerland.
- University of Basel, Petersplatz 1, Basel, Switzerland.
| | - Margaret M Njoroge
- Human Health Theme, International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (icipe), 00100, Nairobi, Kenya
- Laboratory of Entomology, Wageningen University and Research, P.O. Box 16, 6700 AA, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Mgeni M Tambwe
- Environmental Health and Ecological Sciences Department, Ifakara Health Institute, P.O. Box 53, Ifakara, Tanzania
| | - Clara Champagne
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, 4051, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Petersplatz 1, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Fredros Okumu
- Environmental Health and Ecological Sciences Department, Ifakara Health Institute, P.O. Box 53, Ifakara, Tanzania
- School of Public Health, Faculty of Health Science, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
- School of Life Science and Biotechnology, Nelson Mandela African Institution of Science and Technology, P.O. Box 447, Arusha, Tanzania
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Joop J A van Loon
- Laboratory of Entomology, Wageningen University and Research, P.O. Box 16, 6700 AA, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Alexandra Hiscox
- Laboratory of Entomology, Wageningen University and Research, P.O. Box 16, 6700 AA, Wageningen, The Netherlands
- ARCTEC, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, WC1E 7HT, London, UK
| | - Adam Saddler
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, 4051, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Petersplatz 1, Basel, Switzerland
- Environmental Health and Ecological Sciences Department, Ifakara Health Institute, P.O. Box 53, Ifakara, Tanzania
| | - Ulrike Fillinger
- Human Health Theme, International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (icipe), 00100, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Sarah J Moore
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, 4051, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Petersplatz 1, Basel, Switzerland
- Environmental Health and Ecological Sciences Department, Ifakara Health Institute, P.O. Box 53, Ifakara, Tanzania
| | - Nakul Chitnis
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, 4051, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Petersplatz 1, Basel, Switzerland
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15
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Cribellier A, Spitzen J, Fairbairn H, van de Geer C, van Leeuwen JL, Muijres FT. Lure, retain, and catch malaria mosquitoes. How heat and humidity improve odour-baited trap performance. Malar J 2020; 19:357. [PMID: 33028362 PMCID: PMC7542916 DOI: 10.1186/s12936-020-03403-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2020] [Accepted: 08/31/2020] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND When seeking a human for a blood meal, mosquitoes use several cues to detect and find their hosts. From this knowledge, counter-flow odour-baited traps have been developed that use a combination of CO2, human-mimicking odour, visual cues and circulating airflow to attract and capture mosquitoes. Initially developed for monitoring, these traps are now also being considered as promising vector control tools. The traps are attractive to host-seeking mosquitoes, but their capture efficiency is low. It has been hypothesized that the lack of short-range host cues, such as heat and increased local humidity, often prevent mosquitoes from getting close enough to get caught; this lack might even trigger avoidance manoeuvres near the capture region. METHODS This study investigated how close-range host cues affect the flight behaviour of Anopheles female malaria mosquitoes around odour-baited traps, and how this affects trap capture performance. For this, a novel counter-flow odour-baited trap was developed, the M-Tego. In addition to the usual CO2 and odour-blend, this trap can provide the short-range host cues, heat and humidity. Systematically adding or removing these two cues tested how this affected the trap capture percentages and flight behaviour. First, capture percentages of the M-Tego with and without short-range host cues to the BG-Suna trap were compared, in both laboratory and semi-field testing. Then, machine-vision techniques were used to track the three-dimensional flight movements of mosquitoes around the M-Tego. RESULTS With heat and humidity present, the M-Tego captured significantly more mosquitoes as capture percentages almost doubled. Comparing the flight behaviour around the M-Tego with variable close-range host cues showed that when these cues were present, flying mosquitoes were more attracted to the trap and spent more time there. In addition, the M-Tego was found to have a better capture mechanism than the BG-Suna, most likely because it does not elicit previously observed upward avoiding manoeuvres. CONCLUSIONS Results suggest that adding heat and humidity to an odour-baited trap lures more mosquitoes close to the trap and retains them there longer, resulting in higher capture performance. These findings support the development of control tools for fighting mosquito-borne diseases such as malaria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antoine Cribellier
- Experimental Zoology Group, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Jeroen Spitzen
- Laboratory of Entomology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Henry Fairbairn
- Experimental Zoology Group, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands.,Faculty of Industrial Design Engineering, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Cedric van de Geer
- Experimental Zoology Group, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands.,Laboratory of Entomology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands.,Faculty of Industrial Design Engineering, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands.,Ifakara Health Institute, Ifakara, Tanzania
| | - Johan L van Leeuwen
- Experimental Zoology Group, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Florian T Muijres
- Experimental Zoology Group, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
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16
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Keller MD, Norton BJ, Farrar DJ, Rutschman P, Marvit M, Makagon A. Optical tracking and laser-induced mortality of insects during flight. Sci Rep 2020; 10:14795. [PMID: 32908169 PMCID: PMC7481216 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-71824-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2020] [Accepted: 08/21/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Addressing the need for novel insect observation and control tools, the Photonic Fence detects and tracks mosquitoes and other flying insects and can apply lethal doses of laser light to them. Previously, we determined lethal exposure levels for a variety of lasers and pulse conditions on anesthetized Anopheles stephensi mosquitoes. In this work, similar studies were performed while the subjects were freely flying within transparent cages two meters from the optical system; a proof-of-principle demonstration of a 30 m system was also performed. From the dose–response curves of mortality data created as a function of various beam diameter, pulse width, and power conditions at visible and near-infrared wavelengths, the visible wavelengths required significantly lower laser exposure than near infrared wavelengths to disable subjects, though near infrared sources remain attractive given their cost and retina safety. The flight behavior of the subjects and the performance of the tracking system were found to have no impact on the mortality outcomes for pulse durations up to 25 ms, which appears to be the ideal duration to minimize required laser power. The results of this study affirm the practicality of using optical approaches to protect people and crops from pestilent flying insects.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Arty Makagon
- Intellectual Ventures Laboratory, Bellevue, WA, USA.
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17
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Abstract
AbstractReliance on broad-spectrum insecticides and chemotherapeutic agents to control hematophagous insect vectors, and their related diseases is threatened by increasing insecticide and drug resistance, respectively. Thus, development of novel, alternative, complementary and effective technologies for surveillance and control of such insects is strongly encouraged. Semiochemicals are increasingly developed for monitoring and intervention of insect crop pests, but this has not been adequately addressed for hematophagous insects of medical and veterinary importance. This review provides an insight in the application of semiochemicals for control of hematophagous insects. Here, we provide specific information regarding the isolation and identification of semiochemical compounds, optimization approaches, detection, perception and discrimination by the insect olfactory system. Navigation of insects along wind-borne odor plumes is discussed and methods of odor application in field situations are reviewed. Finally, we discuss prospects and future challenges for the application of semiochemical-based tools with emphasis on mosquitoes. The acquired knowledge can guide development of more effective components of integrated vector management, safeguard against emerging resistance of insects to existing insecticides and reduce the burden of vector-borne diseases.
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18
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Amos BA, Staunton KM, Ritchie SA, Cardé RT. Attraction Versus Capture: Efficiency of BG-Sentinel Trap Under Semi-Field Conditions and Characterizing Response Behaviors for Female Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae). JOURNAL OF MEDICAL ENTOMOLOGY 2020; 57:884-892. [PMID: 31977049 DOI: 10.1093/jme/tjz243] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Aedes aegypti (L.) is an important vector of viruses causing dengue, Zika, chikungunya, and yellow fever and as such is a threat to public health worldwide. Effective trapping methods are essential for surveillance of both the mosquito species and disease presence. The BG-Sentinel (BGS) is a widely used to trap Ae. aegypti but little is known of its efficiency, i.e., what proportion of the mosquitoes encountering the trap are captured. The first version of the BGS trap was predominantly white, and the current version is mostly navy blue. While this trap is often deployed without any olfactory lure, it can also be deployed with CO2 and/or a human skin odor mimic lure to increase capture rates. We tested the efficiency of capturing Ae. aegypti under semi-field conditions for the original white version without lures as well the blue version with and without various lure combinations. None of the configurations tested here captured 100% of the mosquitoes that encountered the trap. A navy-blue trap emitting CO2 and a skin odor mimic produced the highest capture (14% of the total insects in the semi-field cage), but its capture efficiency was just 5% (of mosquitoes encountering the trap). Mosquitoes often had multiple encounters with a trap that did not result in capture; they crossed over the trap entrance without being captured or landed on the sides of the trap. Understanding these behaviors and the factors that induce them has the potential to suggest improvement in trap design and therefore capture efficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brogan A Amos
- Department of Entomology, University of California Riverside, Riverside, CA
| | - Kyran M Staunton
- College of Public Health, Medical and Veterinary Sciences, James Cook University, Smithfield, QLD, Australia
- Australian Institute of Tropical Health and Medicine, James Cook University, Smithfield, QLD, Australia
| | - Scott A Ritchie
- College of Public Health, Medical and Veterinary Sciences, James Cook University, Smithfield, QLD, Australia
- Australian Institute of Tropical Health and Medicine, James Cook University, Smithfield, QLD, Australia
| | - Ring T Cardé
- Department of Entomology, University of California Riverside, Riverside, CA
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19
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Visser TM, de Cock MP, Hiwat H, Wongsokarijo M, Verhulst NO, Koenraadt CJM. Optimisation and field validation of odour-baited traps for surveillance of Aedes aegypti adults in Paramaribo, Suriname. Parasit Vectors 2020; 13:121. [PMID: 32143711 PMCID: PMC7059684 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-020-4001-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2019] [Accepted: 02/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Emerging arboviral diseases like Zika, dengue and chikungunya that are transmitted by Aedes aegypti mosquitoes, are increasingly threatening human health. Blends of human-like synthetic chemical attractants can be used to attract host-seeking mosquitoes. The aim of this study was to test new combinations of traps and odour baits in the laboratory, followed by testing the best candidates in the field to improve Ae. aegypti monitoring and surveillance. METHODS First, the BG-Suna trap was evaluated for capturing laboratory-reared Ae. aegypti by testing normal and inverted positions in screen cage tests. Secondly, the attractiveness of the MB5 blend, CO2, and their combination was tested. Thirdly, we tested the attractiveness of different trap types (BG-Suna, BG-Sentinel, MM-X and CDC light trap). Finally, we confirmed laboratory results in the field in Paramaribo, Suriname, using the MB5 and BG-Lure odour blends, CO2 and the BG-Sentinel and BG-Bowl trap using a Latin Square design. RESULTS The MB5 blend in combination with CO2 outperformed traps baited only with CO2 or MB5 in screen cage tests (P < 0.0001). The BG-Sentinel trap performed equally well as the inverted BG-Suna and was taken to the field (P = 0.729). In the field, we captured Ae. aegypti, Cx. quinquefasciatus and Cx. nigripalpus. We confirmed the laboratory results and found that the combination of the MB5 blend and CO2 almost doubled Ae. aegypti female captures (P = 0.004) and more than doubled Culex spp. female captures (P = 0.005) compared to using only CO2. Interestingly, the MB5 blend outperformed the commercially available BG-Lure, in the BG-Sentinel (P < 0.001). The BG-Bowl also attracted Ae. aegypti when baited with the MB5 blend in similar numbers as the BG-Sentinel baited with the MB5 (P = 0.362). CONCLUSIONS Our study demonstrated that the BG-Sentinel trap baited with the MB5 blend and CO2 outperforms the current golden standard (BG-Sentinel trap with BG-Lure) for monitoring Ae. aegypti females and males, in both laboratory and field experiments. The BG-Bowl baited with the MB5 blend is a good candidate for home use. Finally, the results show that CO2 is an indispensable component of the attractive blend.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tessa M Visser
- Laboratory of Entomology, Department of Plant Sciences, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
| | - Marieke P de Cock
- Laboratory of Entomology, Department of Plant Sciences, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Hélène Hiwat
- Malaria Programme, Ministry of Health, Paramaribo, Suriname
| | | | - Niels O Verhulst
- National Centre for Vector Entomology, Institute of Parasitology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zürich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Constantianus J M Koenraadt
- Laboratory of Entomology, Department of Plant Sciences, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands
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20
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Batista EPA, Mapua SA, Ngowo H, Matowo NS, Melo EF, Paixão KS, Eiras AE, Okumu FO. Videographic analysis of flight behaviours of host-seeking Anopheles arabiensis towards BG-Malaria trap. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0220563. [PMID: 31365584 PMCID: PMC6668822 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0220563] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2019] [Accepted: 07/18/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The BG-Malaria trap (BGM) is an adaptation of the well-known BG-Sentinel trap (BGS) with greater trapping efficiencies for anopheline and culicine mosquitoes. Its continued optimization requires greater understanding of mosquito flight behaviors near it. We used three high-resolution infrared cameras (68 frames/second) to track flight behaviors of laboratory-reared Anopheles arabiensis females in vicinity of the BGM in comparison with BGS. Additional comparisons were done for BGM at 20, 40 and 80cm heights, and for BGMs baited with Ifakara blend plus CO2, CO2 alone, or no bait. More mosquitoes were observed near BGM than BGS. Both BGMs installed 20cm above the floor and baited with CO2 received more visits by host-seeking mosquitoes than the other BGMs evaluated in their respective experiments. Trap designs, height and attractants all influence mosquito activity in vicinity of the traps which can be readily visualized using infrared cameras to accelerate trap development and testing. The greater activity of host-seeking mosquitoes near BGM than BGS supports the proven superiority of BGM traps in field and semi-field settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elis P. A. Batista
- Laboratory of Innovation Technologies in Vector Control, Department of Parasitology, Biological Sciences Institute, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
- Environmental Health and Ecological Sciences Department, Ifakara Health Institute, Ifakara, Tanzania
| | - Salum A. Mapua
- Environmental Health and Ecological Sciences Department, Ifakara Health Institute, Ifakara, Tanzania
- School of Life Sciences, University of Keele, Staffordshire, United Kingdom
- School of Environment and Life Sciences, University of Salford, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Halfan Ngowo
- Environmental Health and Ecological Sciences Department, Ifakara Health Institute, Ifakara, Tanzania
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Nancy S. Matowo
- Environmental Health and Ecological Sciences Department, Ifakara Health Institute, Ifakara, Tanzania
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Elizangela F. Melo
- Laboratory of Innovation Technologies in Vector Control, Department of Parasitology, Biological Sciences Institute, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Kelly S. Paixão
- Laboratory of Innovation Technologies in Vector Control, Department of Parasitology, Biological Sciences Institute, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Alvaro E. Eiras
- Laboratory of Innovation Technologies in Vector Control, Department of Parasitology, Biological Sciences Institute, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Fredros O. Okumu
- Environmental Health and Ecological Sciences Department, Ifakara Health Institute, Ifakara, Tanzania
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
- School of Public Health, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Parktown, Republic of South Africa
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