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Barrone J, Vidal MC, Stevenson R. Sphingid caterpillars conspicuous patches do not function as distractive marks or warning against predators. Ecol Evol 2023; 13:e10334. [PMID: 37492454 PMCID: PMC10363802 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.10334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2023] [Revised: 07/01/2023] [Accepted: 07/05/2023] [Indexed: 07/27/2023] Open
Abstract
To avoid predation by visual predators, caterpillars can be cryptic to decrease detectability or aposematic to warn predators of potential unpalatability. However, for some species, it is not clear if conspicuous patches are selected to avoid predation. For example, Pandora sphinx (Eumorpha pandorus, Lepidoptera: Sphingidae) caterpillars are assumed to be palatable and have both cryptic (green, brown) and conspicuous (orange, red) color morphs. Five lateral, off-white to yellow patches on either side may serve as a warning for predators or to draw attention away from the caterpillar's form to function as distractive marks. We conducted a field study in three temperate fragmented forests in Massachusetts to investigate the potential utility of E. pandorus coloration and conspicuous patches. Using four plasticine caterpillar prey model treatments, green and red with and without lateral conspicuous patches, we tested the effects of color, patch patterning, and seasonality on attack rates by a variety of taxa. We found that 43% of the prey models (n = 964) had bite marks by an array of predators including arthropods (67.5%), birds (18.2%), rodents (11.5%), and large mammals (2.8%). Arthropods as dominant predators align with conclusions from previous studies of prey models placed near ground level. Attack rates peaked for arthropods in late August and early September but were more constant across trials for vertebrates. Arthropods, a heterogeneous group, as indicated by the variety of bite marks, showed significantly higher attack rates on green colored prey models and a tendency of higher attack on solid (non-patch patterned) prey models. Vertebrates, more visually oriented predators, had significantly higher attack rates on red colored prey models and patch patterned prey models. Thus, our results did not suggest that conspicuous patch patterning reduced predation and therefore, we did not find support for the distractive mark hypothesis or warning hypothesis. Further, our study shows clear contrasting interpretations by different predators regarding visual defensive strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Barrone
- Department of BiologyUniversity of Massachusetts BostonBostonMassachusettsUSA
| | - Mayra C. Vidal
- Department of BiologyUniversity of Massachusetts BostonBostonMassachusettsUSA
| | - Robert Stevenson
- Department of BiologyUniversity of Massachusetts BostonBostonMassachusettsUSA
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Hernández-Agüero J, Polo V, García M, Simón D, Ruiz-Tapiador I, Cayuela L. Effects of prey colour on bird predation: an experiment in Mediterranean woodlands. Anim Behav 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2020.10.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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3
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Zvereva EL, Castagneyrol B, Cornelissen T, Forsman A, Hernández‐Agüero JA, Klemola T, Paolucci L, Polo V, Salinas N, Theron KJ, Xu G, Zverev V, Kozlov MV. Opposite latitudinal patterns for bird and arthropod predation revealed in experiments with differently colored artificial prey. Ecol Evol 2019; 9:14273-14285. [PMID: 31938518 PMCID: PMC6953658 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.5862] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2019] [Revised: 10/18/2019] [Accepted: 11/03/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The strength of biotic interactions is generally thought to increase toward the equator, but support for this hypothesis is contradictory. We explored whether predator attacks on artificial prey of eight different colors vary among climates and whether this variation affects the detection of latitudinal patterns in predation. Bird attack rates negatively correlated with model luminance in cold and temperate environments, but not in tropical environments. Bird predation on black and on white (extremes in luminance) models demonstrated different latitudinal patterns, presumably due to differences in prey conspicuousness between habitats with different light regimes. When attacks on models of all colors were combined, arthropod predation decreased, whereas bird predation increased with increasing latitude. We conclude that selection for prey coloration may vary geographically and according to predator identity, and that the importance of different predators may show contrasting patterns, thus weakening the overall latitudinal trend in top-down control of herbivorous insects.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Tatiana Cornelissen
- Departamento de Genética, Ecologia e EvoluçãoUniversidade Federal de Minas GeraisBelo HorizonteBrazil
| | - Anders Forsman
- Department of Biology and Environmental ScienceLinnaeus UniversityKalmarSweden
| | | | - Tero Klemola
- Department of BiologyUniversity of TurkuTurkuFinland
| | - Lucas Paolucci
- Setor de Ecologia e ConservaçãoDepartamento de BiologiaUniversidade Federal de LavrasLavrasBrazil
- Instituto de Pesquisa Ambiental da AmazôniaBrasíliaBrazil
- Departamento de Biologia GeralUniversidade Federal de Viçosa, Campus UniversitárioViçosaBrazil
| | - Vicente Polo
- Department of Biology and Geology, Physics and Inorganic ChemistryUniversity Rey Juan CarlosMóstolesSpain
| | - Norma Salinas
- Instituto de Ciencias de la Naturaleza, Territorio y Energías RenovablesPontificia Universidad Católica del PerúLimaPeru
| | - Kasselman Jurie Theron
- Department of Conservation Ecology and EntomologyStellenbosch UniversityMatielandSouth Africa
| | - Guorui Xu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Forest EcologyXishuangbanna Tropical Botanical GardenChinese Academy of SciencesMenglunChina
| | - Vitali Zverev
- Department of BiologyUniversity of TurkuTurkuFinland
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Franzén M, Forsman A, Betzholtz P. Variable color patterns influence continental range size and species–area relationships on islands. Ecosphere 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/ecs2.2577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Markus Franzén
- Department of Biology and Environmental Science Center for Ecology and Evolution in Microbial Model Systems EEMiS Linnaeus University SE‐391 82 Kalmar Sweden
| | - Anders Forsman
- Department of Biology and Environmental Science Center for Ecology and Evolution in Microbial Model Systems EEMiS Linnaeus University SE‐391 82 Kalmar Sweden
| | - Per‐Eric Betzholtz
- Department of Biology and Environmental Science Linnaeus University SE‐391 82 Kalmar Sweden
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5
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Phenotype-dependent mate choice and the influence of mixed-morph lineage on the reproductive success of a polymorphic and aposematic moth. Evol Ecol 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s10682-018-9944-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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6
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Weir JC. The evolution of colour polymorphism in British winter-active Lepidoptera in response to search image use by avian predators. J Evol Biol 2018; 31:1109-1126. [PMID: 29746729 DOI: 10.1111/jeb.13290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2017] [Revised: 03/29/2018] [Accepted: 04/23/2018] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Phenotypic polymorphism in cryptic species is widespread. This may evolve in response to search image use by predators exerting negative frequency-dependent selection on intraspecific colour morphs, 'apostatic selection'. Evidence exists to indicate search image formation by predators and apostatic selection operating on wild prey populations, though not to demonstrate search image use directly resulting in apostatic selection. The present study attempted to address this deficiency, using British Lepidoptera active in winter as a model system. It has been proposed that the typically polymorphic wing colouration of these species represents an anti-search image adaptation against birds. To test (a) for search image-driven apostatic selection, dimorphic populations of artificial moth-like models were established in woodland at varying relative morph frequencies and exposed to predation by natural populations of birds. In addition, to test (b) whether abundance and degree of polymorphism are correlated across British winter-active moths, as predicted where search image use drives apostatic selection, a series of phylogenetic comparative analyses were conducted. There was a positive relationship between artificial morph frequency and probability of predation, consistent with birds utilizing search images and exerting apostatic selection. Abundance and degree of polymorphism were found to be positively correlated across British Lepidoptera active in winter, though not across all taxonomic groups analysed. This evidence is consistent with polymorphism in this group having evolved in response to search image-driven apostatic selection and supports the viability of this mechanism as a means by which phenotypic and genetic variation may be maintained in natural populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jamie C Weir
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
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Jaworski KE, Lattanzio MS. Physiological Consequences of Food Limitation for a Color Polymorphic Lizard: Are Coping Responses Morph-Specific? COPEIA 2017. [DOI: 10.1643/cp-17-597] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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8
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Takahashi Y. Genome-wide population genetic analysis identifies evolutionary forces establishing continuous population divergence. Ecol Res 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s11284-017-1459-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Forsman A. Is colour polymorphism advantageous to populations and species? Mol Ecol 2016; 25:2693-8. [DOI: 10.1111/mec.13629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2015] [Revised: 10/01/2015] [Accepted: 10/22/2015] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Anders Forsman
- Department of Biology and Environmental Science; Ecology and Evolution in Microbial Model Systems, EEMIS; Linnaeus University; SE-391 82 Kalmar Sweden
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Gagetti BL, Piratelli AJ, Piña-Rodrigues FCM. Fruit color preference by birds and applications to ecological restoration. BRAZ J BIOL 2016; 76:955-966. [DOI: 10.1590/1519-6984.05115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2015] [Accepted: 10/01/2015] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract Ecological restoration aims to retrieve not only the structure but also the functionality of ecosystems. Frugivorous birds may play an important role in this process due to their efficiency in seed dispersal. Color perception in these animals is highly developed, and then the colors of fleshy fruits may provide important clues for choosing plant species for restoration plans. This study aims to integrate bird color preferences and restoration of degraded areas, with an objective to evaluate the potential attractiveness to birds by colored fruits. We carried out an experiment with 384 artificial fruits made of edible modeling clay with the following colors: black, blue, green and red, with 96 fruits of each color in six sites, including four restored areas and two second-growth forest fragments. We also tested the possible effect of light intensity on fruit consumption by color. A total of 120 (38.6%) were assumed to be consumed by birds, and the fruit consumption varied in response to the location and light incidence. Consumption of black and blue fruits was not related to site by chance. Notwithstanding, red and black fruits were consumed significantly more than any other colors, emphasizing bird preference to these colors, regardless of location. Enrichment with shade tolerant shrubs or forest species with black or red fruits may be an alternative way to manage established restorations. In recently established or new restorations, one may introduce pioneer shrubs or short-lived forest species which have blue fruits, but also those having black or red ones.
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Affiliation(s)
- B. L. Gagetti
- Universidade Federal de São Carlos, Brazil; Universidade Federal de São Carlos, Brazil
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Karpestam E, Merilaita S, Forsman A. Colour Polymorphism Protects Prey Individuals and Populations Against Predation. Sci Rep 2016; 6:22122. [PMID: 26902799 PMCID: PMC4763262 DOI: 10.1038/srep22122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2015] [Accepted: 02/01/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Colour pattern polymorphism in animals can influence and be influenced by interactions between predators and prey. However, few studies have examined whether polymorphism is adaptive, and there is no evidence that the co-occurrence of two or more natural prey colour variants can increase survival of populations. Here we show that visual predators that exploit polymorphic prey suffer from reduced performance, and further provide rare evidence in support of the hypothesis that prey colour polymorphism may afford protection against predators for both individuals and populations. This protective effect provides a probable explanation for the longstanding, evolutionary puzzle of the existence of colour polymorphisms. We also propose that this protective effect can provide an adaptive explanation for search image formation in predators rather than search image formation explaining polymorphism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Einat Karpestam
- Ecology and Evolution in Microbial Model Systems, EEMIS, Department of Biology and Environmental Science, Linnaeus University, SE-391 82 Kalmar, Sweden
| | - Sami Merilaita
- Behavioural and Evolutionary Ecology Group, Environmental and Marine Biology, Department of Biosciences, Åbo Akademi University, FI-20520 Turku, Finland
| | - Anders Forsman
- Ecology and Evolution in Microbial Model Systems, EEMIS, Department of Biology and Environmental Science, Linnaeus University, SE-391 82 Kalmar, Sweden
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12
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Forsman A, Betzholtz PE, Franzén M. Variable coloration is associated with dampened population fluctuations in noctuid moths. Proc Biol Sci 2015; 282:20142922. [PMID: 25972462 PMCID: PMC4455791 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2014.2922] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2014] [Accepted: 04/20/2015] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Theory and recent reviews state that greater genetic and phenotypic variation should be beneficial for population abundance and stability. Experimental evaluations of this prediction are rare, of short duration and conducted under controlled environmental settings. The question whether greater diversity in functionally important traits stabilizes populations under more complex ecological conditions in the wild has not been systematically evaluated. Moths are mainly nocturnal, with a large variation in colour patterns among species, and constitute an important food source for many types of organisms. Here, we report the results of a long-term (2003-2013) monitoring study of 115 100 noctuid moths from 246 species. Analysis of time-series data provide rare evidence that species with higher levels of inter-individual variation in colour pattern have higher average abundances and undergo smaller between-year fluctuations compared with species having less variable colour patterns. The signature of interspecific temporal synchronization of abundance fluctuations was weak, suggesting that the dynamics were driven by species-specific biotic interactions rather than by some common, density-independent factor(s). We conclude that individual variation in colour patterns dampens population abundance fluctuations, and suggest that this may partly reflect that colour pattern polymorphism provides protection from visually oriented predators and parasitoids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anders Forsman
- Center for Ecology and Evolution in Microbial Model Systems, EEMiS, Department of Biology and Environmental Science, Linnaeus University, 39182 Kalmar, Sweden
| | - Per-Eric Betzholtz
- Department of Biology and Environmental Science, Linnaeus University, 39182 Kalmar, Sweden
| | - Markus Franzén
- Department of Community Ecology, UFZ, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research, Halle, Germany
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13
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Karpestam E, Merilaita S, Forsman A. Natural levels of colour polymorphism reduce performance of visual predators searching for camouflaged prey. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2014. [DOI: 10.1111/bij.12276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Einat Karpestam
- Ecology and Evolution in Microbial Model Systems; EEMIS; Department of Biology and Environmental Science; Linnaeus University; SE-391 82 Kalmar Sweden
| | - Sami Merilaita
- Behavioural and Evolutionary Ecology Group; Environmental Biology; Department of Biosciences; Åbo Akademi University; FI-20520 Turku Finland
| | - Anders Forsman
- Ecology and Evolution in Microbial Model Systems; EEMIS; Department of Biology and Environmental Science; Linnaeus University; SE-391 82 Kalmar Sweden
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Flores EE, Stevens M, Moore AJ, Blount JD. Diet, development and the optimization of warning signals in post‐metamorphic green and black poison frogs. Funct Ecol 2013. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2435.12084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Eric E. Flores
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation College of Life & Environmental Sciences University of Exeter Cornwall Campus Penryn TR10 9EZ UK
| | - Martin Stevens
- Department of Zoology University of Cambridge Downing Street Cambridge CB2 3EJ UK
| | - Allen J. Moore
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation College of Life & Environmental Sciences University of Exeter Cornwall Campus Penryn TR10 9EZ UK
- Department of Genetics University of Georgia Athens GA 30602 USA
| | - Jonathan D. Blount
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation College of Life & Environmental Sciences University of Exeter Cornwall Campus Penryn TR10 9EZ UK
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Forsman A, Wennersten L, Karlsson M, Caesar S. Variation in founder groups promotes establishment success in the wild. Proc Biol Sci 2012; 279:2800-6. [PMID: 22456885 PMCID: PMC3367781 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2012.0174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2012] [Accepted: 03/05/2012] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Environmental changes currently pose severe threats to biodiversity, and reintroductions and translocations are increasingly used to protect declining populations and species from extinction. Theory predicts that establishment success should be higher for more variable groups of dissimilar individuals. To test this 'diversity promotes establishment' hypothesis, we introduced colour polymorphic pygmy grasshoppers (Tetrix subulata) to different sites in the wild. The number of descendants found at the release sites the subsequent year increased with increasing number of colour morphs in the founder group, and variation in founder groups also positively affected colour morph diversity in the established populations. Since colour morphs differ in morphology, physiology, behaviour, reproductive life history and types of niche used, these findings demonstrate that variation among individuals in functionally important traits promotes establishment success under natural conditions, and further indicate that founder diversity may contribute to evolutionary rescue and increased population persistence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anders Forsman
- School of Natural Sciences, Linnaeus University, 391 82 Kalmar, Sweden.
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Skelhorn J, Ruxton GD. Mimicking multiple models: polyphenetic masqueraders gain additional benefits from crypsis. Behav Ecol 2010. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/arq166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
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Krause-Nehring J, Matthias Starck J, Palmer AR. Juvenile colour polymorphism in the red rock crab, Cancer productus: patterns, causes, and possible adaptive significance. ZOOLOGY 2010; 113:131-9. [PMID: 20435453 DOI: 10.1016/j.zool.2009.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2009] [Revised: 09/08/2009] [Accepted: 09/11/2009] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Juveniles of the common red rock crab of the Northeastern Pacific, Cancer productus, display a stunning diversity of colours and patterns, while adults all have the same drab colouration. Although this is widely known, key questions remain: (1) Does the frequency of different juvenile colours or patterns vary among collection sites or seasonally? (2) Does juvenile colour polymorphism reflect genetic heterogeneity or phenotypic plasticity in response to variable environmental conditions? (3) Do juveniles of different colours or patterns prefer substrata of different heterogeneity or brightness? We therefore: (i) described the variation in colour and pattern of juvenile C. productus; (ii) tested for associations between colour/pattern morphs and crab size, collection site, and season, in the field; (iii) conducted preliminary tests for habitat preferences (background colour, substratum type, light level) of different colour/pattern morphs in laboratory experiments, and (iv) tested the effect of diet (mussels versus shrimp) and feeding rate (high versus low) on juvenile colour/pattern. We describe 30 phenotypes that embrace a wide range of colour and pattern variants. The proportions of these phenotypes did not vary significantly among four collection sites, but they did vary significantly with season: over the summer and fall, juvenile colour and pattern variation was gradually replaced by the uniform adult colouration. The number of crabs displaying adult colouration also increased with crab size. Laboratory experiments suggest no significant preferences of different juvenile morphs for different backgrounds, substrata, or light levels. Diet (mussels versus shrimp) and feeding frequency had no effect on colour/pattern. Collectively, these results, although limited in scope, are not consistent with two likely hypotheses that could explain the extensive colour and pattern variation in juvenile C. productus: (i) selection for background matching by different cryptic forms and (ii) direct effects of diet or feeding rate on colour or pattern. Most probably, the large variety of different juvenile morphs is a result of frequency-dependent selection in which abundant variants are attacked disproportionately often and rarer forms are favoured. Juvenile colour polymorphism in C. productus may reduce the vulnerability to visual predators, impede the formation of a search image, and consequently decrease the risk of predation during the juvenile stages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacqueline Krause-Nehring
- Department Biologie II, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Grosshaderner Str. 2, D-82152 Planegg-Martinsried, Germany.
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