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Zimin A, Zimin SV, Grismer LL, Bauer AM, Chapple DG, Dembitzer J, Roll U, Meiri S. Microhabitat and adhesive toepads shape gecko limb morphology. Integr Zool 2024. [PMID: 39086179 DOI: 10.1111/1749-4877.12880] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/02/2024]
Abstract
Different substrates pose varied biomechanical challenges that select specific morphologies, such as long limbs for faster running and short limbs for balanced posture while climbing narrow substrates. We tested how gecko locomotion is affected by the microhabitat they occupy and by a key adaptation-adhesive toepads-through analyzing how those are related to limb morphology. We collected microhabitat and toepads data for over 90% of limbed gecko species, and limb measurements for 403 species from 83 of the 121 limbed gecko genera, which we then used in phylogenetic comparative analyses. Our data highlight the association of adhesive toepads with arboreality, but a phylogenetic analysis shows that this relationship is not significant, suggesting that these traits are phylogenetically constrained. Comparative analyses reveal that pad-bearing species possess shorter hindlimbs and feet, more even limb lengths, and lower crus: thigh ratios, than padless geckos, across microhabitats. Saxicolous geckos have the longest limbs and limb segments. This is probably influenced by selection for long strides, increased takeoff velocity, and static stability on inclined surfaces. Terrestrial geckos have more even hind- and forelimbs than arboreal geckos, unlike patterns found in other lizards. Our findings underline the difficulty to infer on microhabitat-morphology relationships from one taxon to another, given their differing ecologies and evolutionary pathways. We emphasize the importance of key innovation traits, such as adhesive toepads, in shaping limb morphology in geckos and, accordingly, their locomotion within their immediate environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Zimin
- School of Zoology, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Sean V Zimin
- Department of Life Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva, Israel
| | - L Lee Grismer
- Department of Biology, La Sierra University, Riverside, California, USA
| | - Aaron M Bauer
- College of Liberal Arts and Sciences, Villanova University, Villanova, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - David G Chapple
- School of Biological Sciences, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - Jacob Dembitzer
- School of Zoology, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
- Department of Earth, Environment and Resources Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Napoli, Italy
| | - Uri Roll
- Mitrani Department of Desert Ecology, The Jacob Blaustein Institutes for Desert Research, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Midreshet Ben-Gurion, Israel
| | - Shai Meiri
- School of Zoology, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
- The Steinhardt Museum of Natural History, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
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2
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Garner AM, Russell AP. Revisiting the classification of squamate adhesive setae: historical, morphological and functional perspectives. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2021; 8:202039. [PMID: 33972877 PMCID: PMC8074656 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.202039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2020] [Accepted: 01/28/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Research on gecko-based adhesion has become a truly interdisciplinary endeavour, encompassing many disciplines within the natural and physical sciences. Gecko adhesion occurs by the induction of van der Waals intermolecular (and possibly other) forces between substrata and integumentary filaments (setae) terminating in at least one spatulate tip. Gecko setae have increasingly been idealized as structures with uniform dimensions and a particular branching pattern. Approaches to developing synthetic simulacra have largely adopted such an idealized form as a foundational template. Observations of entire setal fields of geckos and anoles have, however, revealed extensive, predictable variation in setal form. Some filaments of these fields do not fulfil the morphological criteria that characterize setae and, problematically, recent authors have applied the term 'seta' to structurally simpler and likely non-adhesively competent fibrils. Herein we briefly review the history of the definition of squamate setae and propose a standardized classificatory scheme for epidermal outgrowths based on a combination of whole animal performance and morphology. Our review is by no means comprehensive of the literature regarding the form, function, and development of the adhesive setae of squamates and we do not address significant advances that have been made in many areas (e.g. cell biology of setae) that are largely tangential to their classification and identification. We contend that those who aspire to simulate the form and function of squamate setae will benefit from a fuller appreciation of the diversity of these structures, thereby assisting in the identification of features most relevant to their objectives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Austin M. Garner
- Integrated Bioscience Program, Department of Biology, The University of Akron, Akron, OH 44325-3908, USA
| | - Anthony P. Russell
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada T2N 1N4
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Riedel J, Zozaya SM, Hoskin CJ, Schwarzkopf L. Parallel evolution of toepads in rock-dwelling lineages of a terrestrial gecko (Gekkota: Gekkonidae: Heteronotia binoei). Zool J Linn Soc 2021. [DOI: 10.1093/zoolinnean/zlaa167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Selection for effective locomotion can lead to specialized morphological structures. Adhesive toepads, which have arisen independently in different lizard clades, facilitate the use of vertical and inverted substrates. Their evolution is poorly understood because functionally intermediate morphological configurations between padless and pad-bearing forms are rare. To shed light on toepad evolution, we assessed the subdigital morphology of phylogenetically distinct lineages of the Bynoe’s gecko species complex (Heteronotia binoei). Most populations of H. binoei are terrestrial, but two relatively distantly related saxicoline (rock-dwelling) lineages have enlarged terminal subdigital scales resembling toepads. We reconstructed the ancestral terminal subdigital scale size of nine lineages of H. binoei in eastern Australia, including these two saxicoline lineages. Additionally, we compared the subdigital microstructures of four lineages: the two saxicoline lineages and their respective terrestrial sister-lineages. Surprisingly, all four lineages had fully developed setae, but the setae of the two saxicoline lineages were significantly longer, branched more often and were more widely spaced than the terrestrial sister-lineages. We conclude that the saxicoline lineages represent examples of parallel evolution of enlarged adhesive structures in response to vertical substrate use, and their morphology represents a useful model as an intermediate state in toepad evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jendrian Riedel
- College of Science and Engineering, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland, Australia
| | - Stephen M Zozaya
- College of Science and Engineering, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland, Australia
| | - Conrad J Hoskin
- College of Science and Engineering, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland, Australia
| | - Lin Schwarzkopf
- College of Science and Engineering, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland, Australia
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Gamble T. Duplications in Corneous Beta Protein Genes and the Evolution of Gecko Adhesion. Integr Comp Biol 2019; 59:193-202. [DOI: 10.1093/icb/icz010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Corneous proteins are an important component of the tetrapod integument. Duplication and diversification of keratins and associated proteins are linked with the origin of most novel integumentary structures like mammalian hair, avian feathers, and scutes covering turtle shells. Accordingly, the loss of integumentary structures often coincides with the loss of genes encoding keratin and associated proteins. For example, many hair keratins in dolphins and whales have become pseudogenes. The adhesive setae of geckos and anoles are composed of both intermediate filament keratins (IF-keratins, formerly known as alpha-keratins) and corneous beta-proteins (CBPs, formerly known as beta-keratins) and recent whole genome assemblies of two gecko species and an anole uncovered duplications in seta-specific CBPs in each of these lineages. While anoles evolved adhesive toepads just once, there are two competing hypotheses about the origin(s) of digital adhesion in geckos involving either a single origin or multiple origins. Using data from three published gecko genomes, I examine CBP gene evolution in geckos and find support for a hypothesis where CBP gene duplications are associated with the repeated evolution of digital adhesion. Although these results are preliminary, I discuss how additional gecko genome assemblies, combined with phylogenies of keratin and associated protein genes and gene duplication models, can provide rigorous tests of several hypotheses related to gecko CBP evolution. This includes a taxon sampling strategy for sequencing and assembly of gecko genomes that could help resolve competing hypotheses surrounding the origin(s) of digital adhesion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tony Gamble
- Department of Biological Sciences, Marquette University, Milwaukee, WI 53201, USA
- Bell Museum of Natural History, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, MN 55113, USA
- Milwaukee Public Museum, Milwaukee, WI 53233, USA
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Endlein T, Ji A, Yuan S, Hill I, Wang H, Barnes WJP, Dai Z, Sitti M. The use of clamping grips and friction pads by tree frogs for climbing curved surfaces. Proc Biol Sci 2018; 284:rspb.2016.2867. [PMID: 28228509 PMCID: PMC5326540 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2016.2867] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2016] [Accepted: 01/30/2017] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Most studies on the adhesive mechanisms of climbing animals have addressed attachment against flat surfaces, yet many animals can climb highly curved surfaces, like twigs and small branches. Here we investigated whether tree frogs use a clamping grip by recording the ground reaction forces on a cylindrical object with either a smooth or anti-adhesive, rough surface. Furthermore, we measured the contact area of fore and hindlimbs against differently sized transparent cylinders and the forces of individual pads and subarticular tubercles in restrained animals. Our study revealed that frogs use friction and normal forces of roughly a similar magnitude for holding on to cylindrical objects. When challenged with climbing a non-adhesive surface, the compressive forces between opposite legs nearly doubled, indicating a stronger clamping grip. In contrast to climbing flat surfaces, frogs increased the contact area on all limbs by engaging not just adhesive pads but also subarticular tubercles on curved surfaces. Our force measurements showed that tubercles can withstand larger shear stresses than pads. SEM images of tubercles revealed a similar structure to that of toe pads including the presence of nanopillars, though channels surrounding epithelial cells were less pronounced. The tubercles' smaller size, proximal location on the toes and shallow cells make them probably less prone to buckling and thus ideal for gripping curved surfaces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Endlein
- Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, Heisenbergstrasse 3, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Aihong Ji
- Institute of Bio-inspired Structure and Surface Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 29 Yudao Street, Nanjing 210016, People's Republic of China
| | - Shanshan Yuan
- Institute of Bio-inspired Structure and Surface Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 29 Yudao Street, Nanjing 210016, People's Republic of China
| | - Iain Hill
- Centre for Cell Engineering, University of Glasgow, Joseph Black Building, University Avenue, Glasgow G12 8QQ, UK
| | - Huan Wang
- Institute of Bio-inspired Structure and Surface Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 29 Yudao Street, Nanjing 210016, People's Republic of China
| | - W Jon P Barnes
- Centre for Cell Engineering, University of Glasgow, Joseph Black Building, University Avenue, Glasgow G12 8QQ, UK
| | - Zhendong Dai
- Institute of Bio-inspired Structure and Surface Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 29 Yudao Street, Nanjing 210016, People's Republic of China
| | - Metin Sitti
- Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, Heisenbergstrasse 3, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany
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Voigt D, Takanashi T, Tsuchihara K, Yazaki K, Kuroda K, Tsubaki R, Hosoda N. Strongest grip on the rod: tarsal morphology and attachment of Japanese pine sawyer beetles. ZOOLOGICAL LETTERS 2017; 3:16. [PMID: 28904812 PMCID: PMC5591571 DOI: 10.1186/s40851-017-0076-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2017] [Accepted: 08/23/2017] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Dagmar Voigt
- Surface & Adhesion Science Group, Research Center for Structural Materials (RCSM), National Institute for Materials Science (NIMS), 1-1, Namiki, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-0044 Japan
- Institute for Botany, Technische Universitaet Dresden, D-01062 Dresden, Germany
| | - Takuma Takanashi
- Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8687 Japan
| | - Kazuko Tsuchihara
- Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8687 Japan
- Department of Information Science, Tohoku Gakuin University, Sendai, Miyagi 981-3193 Japan
| | - Kenichi Yazaki
- Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8687 Japan
| | - Katsushi Kuroda
- Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8687 Japan
| | - Remi Tsubaki
- Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8687 Japan
- Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology, Yokosuka, Kanagawa Japan
| | - Naoe Hosoda
- Surface & Adhesion Science Group, Research Center for Structural Materials (RCSM), National Institute for Materials Science (NIMS), 1-1, Namiki, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-0044 Japan
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Higham TE, Gamble T, Russell AP. On the origin of frictional adhesion in geckos: small morphological changes lead to a major biomechanical transition in the genusGonatodes. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2016. [DOI: 10.1111/bij.12897] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Timothy E. Higham
- Department of Biology; University of California; Riverside CA 92521 USA
| | - Tony Gamble
- Department of Biological Sciences; Marquette University; Milwaukee WI USA
| | - Anthony P. Russell
- Department of Biological Sciences; University of Calgary; Calgary AB T2N 1N4 Canada
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Diaz RE, Anderson CV, Baumann DP, Kupronis R, Jewell D, Piraquive C, Kupronis J, Winter K, Bertocchini F, Trainor PA. The Veiled Chameleon (Chamaeleo calyptratus Duméril and Duméril 1851): A Model for Studying Reptile Body Plan Development and Evolution. Cold Spring Harb Protoc 2015; 2015:889-894. [PMID: 26310903 DOI: 10.1101/pdb.emo087700] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Vertebrate model organisms have facilitated the discovery and exploration of morphogenetic events and developmental pathways that underpin normal and pathological embryological events. In contrast to amniotes such as Mus musculus (Mammalia) and Gallus gallus (Aves), our understanding of early patterning and developmental events in reptiles (particularly nonavians) remains weak. Squamate reptiles (lizards, snakes, and amphisbaenians) comprise approximately one-third of all living amniotes. But studies of early squamate development have been limited because, in most members of this lineage, embryo development at the time of oviposition is very advanced (limb bud stages and older). In many cases, squamates give birth to fully developed offspring. However, in the veiled chameleon (Chamaeleo calyptratus), embryos have progressed only to a primitive pregastrula stage at the time of oviposition. Furthermore, the body plan of the veiled chameleon is highly specialized for climbing in an arboreal environment. It possesses an entire suite of skeletal and soft anatomical modifications, including cranioskeletal ornamentation, lingual anatomy and biomechanics for projection, autopodial clefting for grasping, adaptations for rapid integumental color changes, a prehensile tail with a lack of caudal autotomy, the loss of the tympanum in the middle ear, and the acquisition of turreted eyes. Thus, C. calyptratus is an important model organism for studying the role of ecological niche specialization, as well as genetic and morphological evolution within an adaptive framework. More importantly, this species is easily bred in captivity, with only a small colony (<10 individuals) needed to obtain hundreds of embryos every year.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raul E Diaz
- Department of Biology, La Sierra University, Riverside, California 92515; Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County, Los Angeles, California 90007
| | - Christopher V Anderson
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island 02912
| | - Diana P Baumann
- Stowers Institute for Medical Research, Kansas City, Missouri 64110
| | - Richard Kupronis
- Stowers Institute for Medical Research, Kansas City, Missouri 64110
| | - David Jewell
- Stowers Institute for Medical Research, Kansas City, Missouri 64110
| | | | - Jill Kupronis
- Stowers Institute for Medical Research, Kansas City, Missouri 64110
| | - Kristy Winter
- Stowers Institute for Medical Research, Kansas City, Missouri 64110
| | - Federica Bertocchini
- Instituto de Biomedicina y Biotechnologia de Cantabria-CSIC-Universidad de Cantabria-Sodercan, Santander, Spain 39012
| | - Paul A Trainor
- Stowers Institute for Medical Research, Kansas City, Missouri 64110; Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas 66160
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Russell AP, Baskerville J, Gamble T, Higham TE. The evolution of digit form inGonatodes(Gekkota: Sphaerodactylidae) and its bearing on the transition from frictional to adhesive contact in gekkotans. J Morphol 2015; 276:1311-32. [DOI: 10.1002/jmor.20420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2015] [Revised: 06/16/2015] [Accepted: 06/21/2015] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Anthony P. Russell
- Department of Biological Sciences; University of Calgary; 2500 University Drive NW Calgary Alberta T2N 1N4 Canada
| | - Joelle Baskerville
- Department of Biological Sciences; University of Calgary; 2500 University Drive NW Calgary Alberta T2N 1N4 Canada
| | - Tony Gamble
- Department of Genetics, Cell Biology, and Development, and the Bell Museum of Natural History; University of Minnesota; Minneapolis Minnesota 55455
| | - Timothy E. Higham
- Department of Biology; University of California; Riverside California 92521
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Riedel J, Böhme W, Bleckmann H, Spinner M. Microornamentation of leaf chameleons (Chamaeleonidae: Brookesia, Rhampholeon, and Rieppeleon)--with comments on the evolution of microstructures in the Chamaeleonidae. J Morphol 2014; 276:167-84. [PMID: 25327894 DOI: 10.1002/jmor.20330] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2013] [Revised: 08/08/2014] [Accepted: 09/26/2014] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Chameleons (Chamaeleonidae) feature many adaptations to their arboreal lifestyle, including zygodactylous feet, a prehensile tail, and epidermal microstructures. In arboreal tree chameleons, the substrate-contacting site of the feet and tail is covered by microscopic hair-like structures (setae) of 6-20 µm length. Their friction enhancing function has been shown in recent studies. Leaf chameleons and one representative of the tree chameleons (Chamaeleo namaquensis) secondarily have become ground-dwelling. Because leaf chameleons are paraphyletic, one could expect that in the three leaf chameleon genera Brookesia, Rhampholeon, and Rieppeleon and the tree chameleon Ch. namaquensis, epidermis has adapted independently to terrestrial locomotion. Using scanning electron microscopy, we investigated the substrate-contacting surfaces of the feet (subdigital) of 17 leaf chameleon species and five tree chameleon species that have not yet been examined. Additionally, surfaces not involved in locomotion, the flanks (dorsolateral), and scale interstices, were examined. Although the subdigital microstructures in leaf chameleons are more diverse than in tree chameleons, we found some features across the genera. The subdigital microornamentation of Rhampholeon spinosus consists of long thin setae and spines, comparable to those of tree chameleons. All other Rhampholeon species have spines or short but broad setae. Rh. spectrum had tooth-like structures instead of setae. Subdigital scales of Brookesia have either thorns or conical scale-tops in the center and feature honeycomb microstructures. In Rieppeleon, subdigital scales have a thorn. Scale surfaces are covered by honeycombs and short hair-like structures (spines). As subdigital scales with a thorn in the center and honeycomb microstructures were also found in the terrestrial tree chameleon Ch. namaquensis, one can assume that this geometry is a convergent adaptation to terrestrial locomotion. Despite the great number of genus-specific traits, the convergent evolution of honey-comb structures in Brookesia, Rieppeleon, and Ch. namaquensis and the high variability of spines and setae in Rhampholeon suggests a rapid adaptation of subdigital microornamentation in Chamaeleonidae.
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Collins CE, Russell AP, Higham TE. Subdigital adhesive pad morphology varies in relation to structural habitat use in the Namib Day Gecko. Funct Ecol 2014. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2435.12312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Anthony P. Russell
- Department of Biological Sciences University of Calgary Calgary ABCanada
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12
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Spinner M, Westhoff G, Gorb SN. Subdigital setae of chameleon feet: friction-enhancing microstructures for a wide range of substrate roughness. Sci Rep 2014; 4:5481. [PMID: 24970387 PMCID: PMC4073164 DOI: 10.1038/srep05481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2013] [Accepted: 06/10/2014] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Hairy adhesive systems of microscopic setae with triangular flattened tips have evolved convergently in spiders, insects and arboreal lizards. The ventral sides of the feet and tails in chameleons are also covered with setae. However, chameleon setae feature strongly elongated narrow spatulae or fibrous tips. The friction enhancing function of these microstructures has so far only been demonstrated in contact with glass spheres. In the present study, the frictional properties of subdigital setae of Chamaeleo calyptratus were measured under normal forces in the physical range on plane substrates having different roughness. We showed that chameleon setae maximize friction on a wide range of substrate roughness. The highest friction was measured on asperities of 1 μm. However, our observations of the climbing ability of Ch. calyptratus on rods of different diameters revealed that also claws and grasping feet are additionally responsible for the force generation on various substrates during locomotion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marlene Spinner
- 1] Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Zoological Institute, Kiel University, Am Botanischen Garten 9, 24118 Kiel, Germany [2] Institute of Zoology, University of Bonn, Poppelsdorfer Schloss, 53115 Bonn, Germany
| | - Guido Westhoff
- 1] Institute of Zoology, University of Bonn, Poppelsdorfer Schloss, 53115 Bonn, Germany [2] Tierpark Hagenbeck gGmbH, Lokstedter Grenzstraβe 2, 22527 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Stanislav N Gorb
- Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Zoological Institute, Kiel University, Am Botanischen Garten 9, 24118 Kiel, Germany
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13
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Gilman C. Arboreal locomotion: aye, there's the rub! J Exp Biol 2014. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.094755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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