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Iijima M, Mayerl CJ, Munteanu VD, Blob RW. Forelimb muscle activation patterns in American alligators: Insights into the evolution of limb posture and powered flight in archosaurs. J Anat 2024; 244:943-958. [PMID: 38242862 PMCID: PMC11095314 DOI: 10.1111/joa.14011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2023] [Revised: 01/08/2024] [Accepted: 01/09/2024] [Indexed: 01/21/2024] Open
Abstract
The evolution of archosaurs provides an important context for understanding the mechanisms behind major functional transformations in vertebrates, such as shifts from sprawling to erect limb posture and the acquisition of powered flight. While comparative anatomy and ichnology of extinct archosaurs have offered insights into musculoskeletal and gait changes associated with locomotor transitions, reconstructing the evolution of motor control requires data from extant species. However, the scarcity of electromyography (EMG) data from the forelimb, especially of crocodylians, has hindered understanding of neuromuscular evolution in archosaurs. Here, we present EMG data for nine forelimb muscles from American alligators during terrestrial locomotion. Our aim was to investigate the modulation of motor control across different limb postures and examine variations in motor control across phylogeny and locomotor modes. Among the nine muscles examined, m. pectoralis, the largest forelimb muscle and primary shoulder adductor, exhibited significantly smaller mean EMG amplitudes for steps in which the shoulder was more adducted (i.e., upright). This suggests that using a more adducted limb posture helps to reduce forelimb muscle force and work during stance. As larger alligators use a more adducted shoulder and hip posture, the sprawling to erect postural transition that occurred in the Triassic could be either the cause or consequence of the evolution of larger body size in archosaurs. Comparisons of EMG burst phases among tetrapods revealed that a bird and turtle, which have experienced major musculoskeletal transformations, displayed distinctive burst phases in comparison to those from an alligator and lizard. These results support the notion that major shifts in body plan and locomotor modes among sauropsid lineages were associated with significant changes in muscle activation patterns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masaya Iijima
- Structure and Motion Lab, Department of Comparative Biomedical SciencesThe Royal Veterinary CollegeHertfordshireUK
- Nagoya University MuseumNagoyaJapan
| | | | - V. David Munteanu
- Department of Biological SciencesClemson UniversityClemsonSouth CarolinaUSA
| | - Richard W. Blob
- Department of Biological SciencesClemson UniversityClemsonSouth CarolinaUSA
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2
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Selvitella AM, Foster KL. On the variability and dependence of human leg stiffness across strides during running and some consequences for the analysis of locomotion data. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2023; 10:230597. [PMID: 37621665 PMCID: PMC10445019 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.230597] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2023] [Accepted: 07/27/2023] [Indexed: 08/26/2023]
Abstract
Typically, animal locomotion studies involve consecutive strides, which are frequently assumed to be independent with parameters that do not vary across strides. This assumption is often not tested. However, failing in particular to account for dependence across strides may cause an incorrect estimate of the uncertainty of the measurements and thereby lead to either missing (overestimating variance) or over-evaluating (underestimating variance) biological signals. In turn, this impacts replicability of the results because variability is accounted for differently across experiments. In this paper, we analyse the changes of a couple of measures of human leg stiffness across strides during running experiments, using a publicly available dataset. A major finding of this analysis is that the time series of these measurements of stiffness show autocorrelation even at large lags and so there is dependence between individual strides, even when separated by many intervening strides. Our results question the practice in biomechanics research of using each stride as an independent observation or of sub-selecting strides at small lags. Following the outcome of our analysis, we strongly recommend caution in doing so without first confirming the independence of the measurements across strides and without confirming that sub-selection does not produce spurious results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandro Maria Selvitella
- Department of Mathematical Sciences, Purdue University Fort Wayne, 2101 East Coliseum Boulevard, Fort Wayne, IN 46805, USA
- eScience Institute, University of Washington, 3910 15th Avenue Northeast, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
- NSF-Simons Center for Quantitative Biology, Northwestern University, 2200 Campus Drive Evanston, IL 60208, USA
| | - Kathleen Lois Foster
- NSF-Simons Center for Quantitative Biology, Northwestern University, 2200 Campus Drive Evanston, IL 60208, USA
- Department of Biology, Ball State University, 2000 West University Avenue, Muncie, IN 47306, USA
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3
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Selvitella AM, Foster KL. The spring-mass model and other reductionist models of bipedal locomotion on inclines. Integr Comp Biol 2022; 62:icac047. [PMID: 35679091 DOI: 10.1093/icb/icac047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The spring-mass model is a model of locomotion aimed at giving the essential mathematical laws of the trajectory of the center of mass of an animal during bouncing gaits, such as hopping (one-dimensional) and running (two-dimensional). This reductionist mechanical system has been extensively investigated for locomotion over horizontal surfaces, whereas it has been largely neglected on other ecologically relevant surfaces, including inclines. For example, how the degree of inclination impacts the dynamics of the center of mass of the spring-mass model has not been investigated thoroughly. In this work, we derive a mathematical model which extends the spring-mass model to inclined surfaces. Among our results, we derive an approximate solution of the system, assuming a small angular sweep of the limb and a small spring compression during stance, and show that this approximation is very accurate, especially for small inclinations of the ground. Furthermore, we derive theoretical bounds on the difference between the Lagrangian and Lagrange equations of the true and approximate system, and discuss locomotor stability questions of the approximate solutions. We test our models through a sensitivity analysis using parameters relevant to the locomotion of bipedal animals (quail, pheasant, guinea fowl, turkey, ostrich, and humans) and compare our approximate solution to the numerically derived solution of the exact system. We compare the two-dimensional spring-mass model on inclines with the one-dimensional spring-mass model to which it reduces under the limit of no horizontal velocity; we compare the two-dimensional spring-mass model on inclines with the inverted-pendulum model on inclines towards which it converges in the case of high stiffness-to-mass ratio. We include comparisons with historically prevalent no-gravity approximations of these models, as well. The insights we have gleaned through all these comparisons and the ability of our approximation to replicate some of the kinematic changes observed in animals moving on different inclines (e.g. reduction in vertical oscillation of the center of mass and decreased stride length) underlines the valuable and reasonable contributions that very simple, reductionist models, like the spring-mass model, can provide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandro Maria Selvitella
- Department of Mathematical Sciences, Purdue University Fort Wayne, 2101 E. Coliseum Blvd, Fort Wayne, 46805, IN, USA
- eScience Institute, University of Washington, 3910 15th Ave NE, Seattle, 98195, WA, USA
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4
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Lutek K, Donatelli CM, Standen EM. Patterns and processes in amphibious fish: biomechanics and neural control of fish terrestrial locomotion. J Exp Biol 2022; 225:275243. [PMID: 35502693 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.242395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Amphibiousness in fishes spans the actinopterygian tree from the earliest to the most recently derived species. The land environment requires locomotor force production different from that in water, and a diversity of locomotor modes have evolved across the actinopterygian tree. To compare locomotor mode between species, we mapped biomechanical traits on an established amphibious fish phylogeny. Although the diversity of fish that can move over land is large, we noted several patterns, including the rarity of morphological and locomotor specialization, correlations between body shape and locomotor mode, and an overall tendency for amphibious fish to be small. We suggest two idealized empirical metrics to consider when gauging terrestrial 'success' in fishes and discuss patterns of terrestriality in fishes considering biomechanical scaling, physical consequences of shape, and tissue plasticity. Finally, we suggest four ways in which neural control could change in response to a novel environment, highlighting the importance and challenges of deciphering when these control mechanisms are used. We aim to provide an overview of the diversity of successful amphibious locomotion strategies and suggest several frameworks that can guide the study of amphibious fish and their locomotion.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Lutek
- Department of Biology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada, K1N 6N5
| | - C M Donatelli
- Department of Biology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada, K1N 6N5
| | - E M Standen
- Department of Biology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada, K1N 6N5
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5
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Jumping with adhesion: landing surface incline alters impact force and body kinematics in crested geckos. Sci Rep 2021; 11:23043. [PMID: 34845262 PMCID: PMC8630229 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-02033-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2021] [Accepted: 10/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Arboreal habitats are characterized by a complex three-dimensional array of branches that vary in numerous characteristics, including incline, compliance, roughness, and diameter. Gaps must often be crossed, and this is frequently accomplished by leaping. Geckos bearing an adhesive system often jump in arboreal habitats, although few studies have examined their jumping biomechanics. We investigated the biomechanics of landing on smooth surfaces in crested geckos, Correlophus ciliatus, asking whether the incline of the landing platform alters impact forces and mid-air body movements. Using high-speed videography, we examined jumps from a horizontal take-off platform to horizontal, 45° and 90° landing platforms. Take-off velocity was greatest when geckos were jumping to a horizontal platform. Geckos did not modulate their body orientation in the air. Body curvature during landing, and landing duration, were greatest on the vertical platform. Together, these significantly reduced the impact force on the vertical platform. When landing on a smooth vertical surface, the geckos must engage the adhesive system to prevent slipping and falling. In contrast, landing on a horizontal surface requires no adhesion, but incurs high impact forces. Despite a lack of mid-air modulation, geckos appear robust to changing landing conditions.
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6
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Kane EA, Higham TE. Kinematic integration during prey capture varies among individuals but not ecological contexts in bluegill sunfish, Lepomis macrochirus (Perciformes: Centrarchidae). Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2020. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/blaa026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
The general ability of components of an organism to work together to achieve a common goal has been termed integration and is often studied empirically by deconstructing organisms into component parts and quantifying covariation between them. Kinematic traits describing movement are useful for allowing organisms to respond to ecological contexts that vary over short time spans (milliseconds, minutes, etc.). Integration of these traits can contribute to the maintenance of the function of the whole organism, but it is unclear how modulation of component kinematic traits affects their integration. We examined the integration of swimming and feeding during capture of alternative prey types in bluegill sunfish (Lepomis macrochirus). Despite the expected modulation of kinematics, integration within individuals was inflexible across prey types, suggesting functional redundancy for solving a broad constraint. However, integration was variable among individuals, suggesting that individuals vary in their solutions for achieving whole-organism function and that this solution acts as a ‘top-down’ regulator of component traits, which provides insight into why kinematic variation is observed. Additionally, variation in kinematic integration among individuals could serve as an understudied target of environmental selection on prey capture, which is a necessary first step towards the observed divergence in integration among populations and species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily A Kane
- Department of Biology, Georgia Southern University, Statesboro, GA, USA
| | - Timothy E Higham
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, University of California, Riverside, Riverside, CA, USA
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7
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Granatosky MC. Testing the propulsive role of m. peroneus longus during quadrupedal walking in Varanus exanthematicus. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL ZOOLOGY PART 2020; 333:325-332. [PMID: 32297482 DOI: 10.1002/jez.2361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2020] [Revised: 03/14/2020] [Accepted: 03/31/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Some varanid lizards show a prominent and highly distinctive lateral calcaneal process. It has been posited that this structure serves as a lateral "heel" to increase the moment arm for m. peroneus longus, allowing it to function as a powerful propulsive muscle. However, to confirm that m. peroneus longus serves this function requires electromyographic data showing activity during tarsal plantarflexion in the late part of the stance phase. Muscle activity patterns of m. peroneus longus, m. tibialis anterior, and mm. gastrocnemii were collected from two savannah monitors (Varanus exanthematicus) during quadrupedal walking. Across strides, m. peroneus longus shows an early onset just before hindlimb touchdown and an offset that is highly correlated with that of mm. gastrocnemii. These patterns are consistent across individuals. However, the fact that the first onset of m. peroneus longus appears to be around the end of swing phase, with activity continuing throughout the remainder of stance, suggests that this muscle likely serves other functional purposes during locomotion beside propulsion. This, paired with the fact that qualitative comparisons of m. peroneus longus activity across other lizard species reveal remarkably similar patterns, suggests the propulsive role of m. peroneus longus in V. exanthematicus was probably built upon existing muscle activity patterns present in ancestral squamates and then exaggerated through modifications to lateral calcaneal heel and the associated proximal expansion of the fifth metatarsal.
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8
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Battles AC, Irschick DJ, Kolbe JJ. Do structural habitat modifications associated with urbanization influence locomotor performance and limb kinematics in Anolis lizards? Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2019. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/blz020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Abstract
AbstractUrbanization significantly alters habitats for arboreal species, increasing the frequency of very smooth substrates by substituting artificial objects, such as metal poles and painted walls, for some trees. Because they experience these novel substrates more often, urban animals may use strategies to overcome challenges from substrate smoothness that animals from natural habitats do not. We assessed locomotor performance and two-dimensional hindlimb kinematics of two species of Anolis lizards (Anolis cristatellus and Anolis sagrei) from both urban and natural habitats in Miami, Florida. We ran lizards on six racetracks, crossing three substrates of increasing smoothness (rough bark, concrete blocks, and smooth, unpainted wood) with two inclinations (37° and vertical). We found that on vertical tracks with smooth substrates, lizards ran slower, took shorter strides and exhibited more contracted limb postures at the end of their stance than when running on the inclined track. Urban lizards, which are likely to be exposed more often to smooth substrates, did not adjust their movement to increase performance relative to lizards from natural habitats. This result, and the similarity of kinematic strategies between the two species, suggests the locomotor responses of lizards to substrate properties are highly conserved, which may be a mitigating factor that dampens or obviates the effects of natural selection on locomotor behaviour.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew C Battles
- University of Rhode Island, Biological Sciences, Kingston, RI, USA
| | - Duncan J Irschick
- University of Massachusetts Amherst, Department of Biology, University of Massachusetts at Amherst, Amherst, MA, USA
| | - Jason J Kolbe
- University of Rhode Island, Biological Sciences, Kingston, RI, USA
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9
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Cuff AR, Daley MA, Michel KB, Allen VR, Lamas LP, Adami C, Monticelli P, Pelligand L, Hutchinson JR. Relating neuromuscular control to functional anatomy of limb muscles in extant archosaurs. J Morphol 2019; 280:666-680. [PMID: 30847966 DOI: 10.1002/jmor.20973] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2018] [Revised: 02/07/2019] [Accepted: 02/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Electromyography (EMG) is used to understand muscle activity patterns in animals. Understanding how much variation exists in muscle activity patterns in homologous muscles across animal clades during similar behaviours is important for evaluating the evolution of muscle functions and neuromuscular control. We compared muscle activity across a range of archosaurian species and appendicular muscles, including how these EMG patterns varied across ontogeny and phylogeny, to reconstruct the evolutionary history of archosaurian muscle activation during locomotion. EMG electrodes were implanted into the muscles of turkeys, pheasants, quail, guineafowl, emus (three age classes), tinamous and juvenile Nile crocodiles across 13 different appendicular muscles. Subjects walked and ran at a range of speeds both overground and on treadmills during EMG recordings. Anatomically similar muscles such as the lateral gastrocnemius exhibited similar EMG patterns at similar relative speeds across all birds. In the crocodiles, the EMG signals closely matched previously published data for alligators. The timing of lateral gastrocnemius activation was relatively later within a stride cycle for crocodiles compared to birds. This difference may relate to the coordinated knee extension and ankle plantarflexion timing across the swing-stance transition in Crocodylia, unlike in birds where there is knee flexion and ankle dorsiflexion across swing-stance. No significant effects were found across the species for ontogeny, or between treadmill and overground locomotion. Our findings strengthen the inference that some muscle EMG patterns remained conservative throughout Archosauria: for example, digital flexors retained similar stance phase activity and M. pectoralis remained an 'anti-gravity' muscle. However, some avian hindlimb muscles evolved divergent activations in tandem with functional changes such as bipedalism and more crouched postures, especially M. iliotrochantericus caudalis switching from swing to stance phase activity and M. iliofibularis adding a novel stance phase burst of activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew R Cuff
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, North Mymms, Hertfordshire, AL9 7TA, United Kingdom
| | - Monica A Daley
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, North Mymms, Hertfordshire, AL9 7TA, United Kingdom
| | - Krijn B Michel
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, North Mymms, Hertfordshire, AL9 7TA, United Kingdom
| | - Vivian R Allen
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, North Mymms, Hertfordshire, AL9 7TA, United Kingdom
| | - Luis Pardon Lamas
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, North Mymms, Hertfordshire, AL9 7TA, United Kingdom
| | - Chiara Adami
- Queen Mother Hospital, Department of Clinical Science and Services, Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, North Mymms, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom
| | - Paolo Monticelli
- Queen Mother Hospital, Department of Clinical Science and Services, Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, North Mymms, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom
| | - Ludo Pelligand
- Queen Mother Hospital, Department of Clinical Science and Services, Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, North Mymms, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom
| | - John R Hutchinson
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, North Mymms, Hertfordshire, AL9 7TA, United Kingdom
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10
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Lowie A, Gillet E, Vanhooydonck B, Irschick DJ, Losos JB, Herrel A. Do the relationships between hind limb anatomy and sprint speed variation differ between sexes in Anolis lizards? J Exp Biol 2019; 222:jeb.188805. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.188805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2018] [Accepted: 01/21/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The ability of an animal to run fast has important consequences on its survival capacity and overall fitness. Previous studies have documented how variation in the morphology of the limbs is related to variation in locomotor performance. Although these studies have suggested direct relations between sprint speed and hind limb morphology, few quantitative data exist. Consequently, it remains unclear whether selection acts in limb segment lengths, overall muscle mass or muscle architecture (e.g. muscle fiber length and cross-sectional area). Here, we investigate whether muscle architecture (mass, fiber length, and physiological cross-sectional area), hind limb segment dimensions, or both, explain variation in sprint speed across 14 species of Anolis lizards. Moreover, we test whether similar relationships exist between morphology and performance for both sexes which may not be the case given the known differences in locomotor behavior and habitat use. Our results show that the main driver of sprint speed is the variation in femur length for both males and females. Our results further show sexual dimorphism in the traits studied and moreover show differences in the traits that predict maximal sprint speed in males and females. For example, snout vent length and overall muscle mass are also a good predictors of sprint speed in males whereas no relationships between muscle mass and sprint speed was observed in females. Only a few significative relationships were found between muscle architecture (fiber length, cross sectional area) and sprint speed in male anoles suggesting that overall muscles size, rather than muscle architecture appears to be under selection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aurélien Lowie
- UMR 7179 C.N.R.S/M.N.H.N., Département d'Ecologie et de Gestion de la Biodiversité, 57 rue Cuvier, Case postale 55, 75231, Paris Cedex 5, France
- Ghent University, Department of Biology, Evolutionary morphology of vertebrates, K.L. Ledeganckstraat 35, 9000 Gent, Belgium
| | - Elisa Gillet
- UMR 7179 C.N.R.S/M.N.H.N., Département d'Ecologie et de Gestion de la Biodiversité, 57 rue Cuvier, Case postale 55, 75231, Paris Cedex 5, France
| | - Bieke Vanhooydonck
- Department of Biology, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, B-2610 17 Antwerpen, Belgium
| | - Duncan J. Irschick
- Department of Biology, 221 Morrill Science Center, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, USA
| | - Jonathan B. Losos
- Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology and Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University, 26 Oxford Street, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - Anthony Herrel
- UMR 7179 C.N.R.S/M.N.H.N., Département d'Ecologie et de Gestion de la Biodiversité, 57 rue Cuvier, Case postale 55, 75231, Paris Cedex 5, France
- Department of Biology, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, B-2610 17 Antwerpen, Belgium
- Ghent University, Department of Biology, Evolutionary morphology of vertebrates, K.L. Ledeganckstraat 35, 9000 Gent, Belgium
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11
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Foster KL, Garland T, Schmitz L, Higham TE. Skink ecomorphology: forelimb and hind limb lengths, but not static stability, correlate with habitat use and demonstrate multiple solutions. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2018. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/bly146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kathleen L Foster
- University of California, Riverside, University Ave., Riverside, CA, USA
- University of Ottawa, Marie Curie, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Theodore Garland
- University of California, Riverside, University Ave., Riverside, CA, USA
| | - Lars Schmitz
- W.M. Keck Science Department, Claremont McKenna, Scripps, and Pitzer Colleges, N Mills Ave., Claremont, CA, USA
| | - Timothy E Higham
- University of California, Riverside, University Ave., Riverside, CA, USA
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12
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Foster KL, Dhuper M, Standen EM. Fin and body neuromuscular coordination changes during walking and swimming in Polypterus senegalus. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018; 221:jeb.168716. [PMID: 29967218 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.168716] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2017] [Accepted: 06/27/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The ability to modulate the function of muscle is integral to an animal's ability to function effectively in the face of widely disparate challenges. This modulation of function can manifest through short-term changes in neuromuscular control, but also through long-term changes in force profiles, fatiguability and architecture. However, the relative extent to which shorter-term modulation and longer-term plasticity govern locomotor flexibility remains unclear. Here, we obtain simultaneously recorded kinematic and muscle activity data of fin and body musculature of an amphibious fish, Polypterus senegalus After examining swimming and walking behaviour in aquatically raised individuals, we show that walking behaviour is characterized by greater absolute duration of muscle activity in most muscles when compared with swimming, but that the magnitude of recruitment during walking is only increased in the secondary bursts of fin muscle and in the primary burst of the mid-body point. This localized increase in intensity suggests that walking in P. senegalus is powered in a few key locations on the fish, contrasting with the more distributed, low intensity muscle force that characterizes the stroke cycle during swimming. Finally, the increased intensity in secondary, but not primary, bursts of the fin muscles when walking probably underscores the importance of antagonistic muscle activity to prevent fin collapse, add stabilization and increase body support. Understanding the principles that underlie the flexibility of muscle function can provide key insights into the sources of animal functional and behavioural diversity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathleen L Foster
- Department of Biology, University of Ottawa, 30 Marie Curie, Ottawa, ON, K1N 6N5, Canada
| | - Misha Dhuper
- Department of Biology, University of Ottawa, 30 Marie Curie, Ottawa, ON, K1N 6N5, Canada
| | - Emily M Standen
- Department of Biology, University of Ottawa, 30 Marie Curie, Ottawa, ON, K1N 6N5, Canada
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13
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Lowie A, Herrel A, Abdala V, Manzano AS, Fabre AC. Does the Morphology of the Forelimb Flexor Muscles Differ Between Lizards Using Different Habitats? Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2018; 301:424-433. [DOI: 10.1002/ar.23739] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2017] [Revised: 09/20/2017] [Accepted: 09/22/2017] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Aurélien Lowie
- UMR 7179, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Mécadev, 57 rue Cuvier, CP 55; Paris cedex 5, 75231 France
| | - Anthony Herrel
- UMR 7179, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Mécadev, 57 rue Cuvier, CP 55; Paris cedex 5, 75231 France
| | - Virginia Abdala
- Facultad de Ciencias Naturales e Instituto Miguel Lillo; UNT-Horco Molle, Instituto de Biología Neotropical-CONICET; Tucuman Argentina
| | | | - Anne-Claire Fabre
- UMR 7179, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Mécadev, 57 rue Cuvier, CP 55; Paris cedex 5, 75231 France
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14
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Jagnandan K, Higham TE. Neuromuscular control of locomotion is altered by tail autotomy in geckos. J Exp Biol 2018; 221:jeb.179564. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.179564] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2018] [Accepted: 07/16/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Animal locomotion is driven by underlying axial and appendicular musculature. In order for locomotion to be effective, these muscles must be able to rapidly respond to changes in environmental and physiological demands. Although virtually unstudied, muscles must also respond to morphological changes, such as those that occur with tail autotomy in lizards. Tail autotomy in leopard geckos (Eublepharis macularius) results in a 25% loss of caudal mass and significant kinematic alterations to maintain stability. To elucidate how motor control of the locomotor muscles is modulated with these shifts, we used electromyography (EMG) to quantify patterns of in vivo muscle activity in fore- and hind limb muscles before and after autotomy. Forelimb muscles (biceps brachii and triceps brachii) exhibited no changes in motor recruitment, consistent with unaltered kinematics after autotomy. Amplitude of activity of propulsive muscles of the hind limbs (caudofemoralis and gastrocnemius) was significantly reduced and coincided with decreases in the propulsive phases of femur retraction and ankle extension, respectively. The puboischiotibialis did not exhibit these changes, despite significant reductions in femur depression and knee angle, suggesting that reduction in mass and vertical ground-reaction force by autotomy allows for the maintenance of a more sprawled and stable posture without increasing motor recruitment of the support muscles. These results highlight the significant neuromuscular shifts that occur to accommodate dramatic changes in body size and mass distribution, and illuminate the utility of tail autotomy as a system for studying the neuromuscular control of locomotion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin Jagnandan
- Life Sciences Department, San Diego City College, 1313 Park Boulevard, San Diego, CA 92101, USA
| | - Timothy E. Higham
- Department of Evolution, Ecology and Organismal Biology, University of California, Riverside, 900 University Avenue, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
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15
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Johnson MA, Kircher BK, Castro DJ. The evolution of androgen receptor expression and behavior in Anolis lizard forelimb muscles. J Comp Physiol A Neuroethol Sens Neural Behav Physiol 2017; 204:71-79. [PMID: 29143128 DOI: 10.1007/s00359-017-1228-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2017] [Revised: 10/12/2017] [Accepted: 11/09/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
The motor systems that produce behavioral movements are among the primary targets for the action of steroid hormones, including androgens. Androgens such as testosterone bind to androgen receptors (AR) to induce physiological changes in the size, strength, and energetic capacity of skeletal muscles, which can directly influence the performance of behaviors in which those muscles are used. Because tissues differentially express AR, resulting in tissue-specific sensitivity to androgens, AR expression may be a major target of selection for the evolution of behavior. Anolis lizards (i.e., anoles) provide a robust system for the study of androgen-regulated traits, including the behavioral traits that facilitate social display and locomotion. In this study, we examined six anole species that demonstrate significant variation in the behavioral use of the forelimbs to measure the proportion of myonuclei in the bicep muscles that express AR. Using phylogenetic comparative analyses, we found that species with a greater proportion of nuclei positive for AR expression in the biceps exhibited greater frequencies of locomotor movements and pushup displays. These results suggest that AR expression in skeletal muscles may influence the evolution of androgen-regulated behaviors in this group.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michele A Johnson
- Department of Biology, Trinity University, San Antonio, TX, 78212, USA.
| | - Bonnie K Kircher
- Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA
| | - Diego J Castro
- Department of Biology, Trinity University, San Antonio, TX, 78212, USA.,Escuela Internacional Sampedrana, San Pedro Sula, Honduras
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16
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Zhuang MV, Higham TE. Arboreal Day Geckos (Phelsuma madagascariensis) Differentially Modulate Fore- and Hind Limb Kinematics in Response to Changes in Habitat Structure. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0153520. [PMID: 27145027 PMCID: PMC4856389 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0153520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2015] [Accepted: 03/30/2016] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
By using adhesion, geckos can move through incredibly challenging habitats. However, continually changing terrain may necessitate modulation of the adhesive apparatus in order to maximize its effectiveness over a range of challenges. Behaviorally modulating how the adhesive system is applied can occur by altering the alignment of the foot relative to the long axis of the body and/or the angles between the digits (interdigital angle). Given the directionality of the adhesive system, geckos likely vary the application of the system via these mechanisms as they run. We quantified 3D movements (using high-speed video) of the day gecko, Phelsuma madagascariensis, running on a range of ecologically relevant inclines (0°, 45°, 90°) and perch diameters (1.5 cm, 10 cm and broad). We measured the instantaneous sum of interdigital angles and foot alignment relative to the body, as well as other kinematic variables, throughout each stride and across treatments. Modulation of foot alignment at 45° and 90° was similar between the forelimb and hind limb, but differed at 0°, suggesting that P. madagascariensis is able to exert an adhesive force using multiple strategies. Both the sum of interdigital angles and alignment in the fore- and hind foot were modulated. Differences in modulation between the limbs are likely related to the underlying morphology. The modulation of interdigital angle and foot alignment suggests that aspects other than the mechanism of adhesion, such as joint morphology, are important for arboreal movement in geckos. Our study of foot usage in arboreal locomotion reveals patterns that may be widespread across pad-bearing lizards. In addition to understanding the constraints exerted by the adhesive apparatus, we highlight how biomechanical traits may respond to the evolution of novel adaptations and morphologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingna V. Zhuang
- Department of Biology, University of California Riverside, Riverside, California, 92521, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Timothy E. Higham
- Department of Biology, University of California Riverside, Riverside, California, 92521, United States of America
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17
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Foster KL, Higham TE. Integrating gastrocnemius force-length properties, in vivo activation, and operating lengths reveals how Anolis deal with ecological challenges. J Exp Biol 2016; 220:796-806. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.151795] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2016] [Accepted: 12/08/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
A central question in biology is how animals successfully behave under complex natural conditions. Although changes in locomotor behaviour, motor control, and force production in relation to incline are commonly examined, a wide range of other factors, including a range of perch diameters, pervades arboreal habitats. Moving on different substrate diameters requires considerable alteration of body and limb posture, likely causing significant shifts in the lengths of the muscle-tendon units powering locomotion. Thus, how substrate shape impacts in vivo muscle function remains an important, but neglected question in ecophysiology. Here, we used high-speed videography, electromyography, in situ contractile experiments, and morphology to examine gastrocnemius muscle function during arboreal locomotion in the Cuban knight anole, (Anolis equestris). The gastrocnemius contributes more to the propulsive effort on broad surfaces than on narrow surfaces. Surprisingly, substrate inclination affected the relationship between the maximum potential force and fibre recruitment; the trade-off that was present between these variables on horizontal conditions became a positive relationship on inclined surfaces. Finally, the biarticular nature of the gastrocnemius allows it to generate force isometrically, regardless of condition, despite the fact that the tendons are incapable of stretching during cyclical locomotion. Our results emphasize the importance of considering ecology and muscle function together, and the necessity of examining both mechanical and physiological properties of muscles to understand how animals move in their environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathleen L. Foster
- Department of Biology, University of California, 900 University Avenue, Riverside, CA, 92521, USA
- Current address: Department of Biology, University of Ottawa, 30 Marie Curie, Ottawa, ON, K1N7N1, Canada
| | - Timothy E. Higham
- Department of Biology, University of California, 900 University Avenue, Riverside, CA, 92521, USA
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18
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de Albuquerque RL, Bonine KE, Garland T. Speed and Endurance Do Not Trade Off in Phrynosomatid Lizards. Physiol Biochem Zool 2015; 88:634-47. [DOI: 10.1086/683678] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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19
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Anzai W, Cádiz A, Endo H. Sexual Dimorphisms of Appendicular Musculoskeletal Morphology Related to Social Display in Cuban Anolis Lizards. Zoolog Sci 2015; 32:438-46. [DOI: 10.2108/zs150027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Wataru Anzai
- The University Museum, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
| | - Antonio Cádiz
- Faculty of Biology, University of Havana, Havana 10400, Cuba
| | - Hideki Endo
- The University Museum, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
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20
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Hindlimb muscle anatomical mechanical advantage differs among joints and stride phases in basilisk lizards. ZOOLOGY 2015; 118:291-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.zool.2015.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2014] [Revised: 03/21/2015] [Accepted: 03/23/2015] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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21
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Kane EA, Higham TE. Complex Systems Are More than the Sum of Their Parts: Using Integration to Understand Performance, Biomechanics, and Diversity. Integr Comp Biol 2015; 55:146-65. [DOI: 10.1093/icb/icv033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
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22
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Higham TE, Measey GJ, Birn-Jeffery AV, Herrel A, Tolley KA. Functional divergence between morphs of a dwarf chameleon: differential locomotor kinematics in relation to habitat structure. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2015. [DOI: 10.1111/bij.12566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Timothy E. Higham
- Department of Biology; University of California; 900 University Avenue Riverside CA 92521 USA
| | - G. John Measey
- Centre for Invasion Biology; Department of Botany & Zoology; Stellenbosch University; Merriman Avenue Stellenbosch South Africa
| | | | - Anthony Herrel
- Département d'Ecologie et de Gestion de la Biodiversité; Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique/Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle; 55 rue Buffon 75005 Paris France
- Ghent University; Evolutionary Morphology of Vertebrates; K.L. Ledeganckstraat 35 B-9000 Gent Belgium
| | - Krystal A. Tolley
- Applied Biodiversity Research Division; South African National Biodiversity Institute; Claremont 7735 Cape Town South Africa
- Department of Botany & Zoology; Stellenbosch University; Merriman Avenue Stellenbosch South Africa
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23
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Husak JF, Keith AR, Wittry BN. Making Olympic lizards: the effects of specialised exercise training on performance. J Exp Biol 2015; 218:899-906. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.114975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
ABSTRACT
Exercise training is well known to affect a suite of physiological and performance traits in mammals, but effects of training in other vertebrate tetrapod groups have been inconsistent. We examined performance and physiological differences among green anole lizards (Anolis carolinensis) that were trained for sprinting or endurance, using an increasingly rigorous training regimen over 8 weeks. Lizards trained for endurance had significantly higher post-training endurance capacity compared with the other treatment groups, but groups did not show post-training differences in sprint speed. Although acclimation to the laboratory environment and training explain some of our results, mechanistic explanations for these results correspond with the observed performance differences. After training, endurance-trained lizards had higher haematocrit and larger fast glycolytic muscle fibres. Despite no detectable change in maximal performance of sprint-trained lizards, we detected that they had significantly larger slow oxidative muscle fibre areas compared with the other treatments. Treatment groups did not differ in the proportion of number of fibre types, nor in the mass of most limb muscles or the heart. Our results offer some caveats for investigators conducting training research on non-model organisms and they reveal that muscle plasticity in response to training may be widespread phylogenetically.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jerry F. Husak
- Department of Biology, University of St. Thomas, St Paul, MN 55105, USA
| | - Allison R. Keith
- Department of Biology, University of St. Thomas, St Paul, MN 55105, USA
| | - Beth N. Wittry
- Department of Biology, University of St. Thomas, St Paul, MN 55105, USA
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24
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Frigon A, Thibaudier Y, Hurteau MF. Modulation of forelimb and hindlimb muscle activity during quadrupedal tied-belt and split-belt locomotion in intact cats. Neuroscience 2015; 290:266-78. [PMID: 25644423 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2014.12.084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2014] [Revised: 12/15/2014] [Accepted: 12/16/2014] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The modulation of the neural output to forelimb and hindlimb muscles when the left and right sides step at different speeds from one another in quadrupeds was assessed by obtaining electromyography (EMG) in seven intact adult cats during split-belt locomotion. To determine if changes in EMG during split-belt locomotion were modulated according to the speed of the belt the limb was stepping on, values were compared to those obtained during tied-belt locomotion (equal left-right speeds) at matched speeds. Cats were chronically implanted for EMG, which was obtained from six muscles: biceps brachii, triceps brachii, flexor carpi ulnaris, sartorius, vastus lateralis and medial gastrocnemius. During tied-belt locomotion, cats stepped from 0.4 to 1.0m/s in 0.1m/s increments whereas during split-belt locomotion, cats stepped with left-right speed differences of 0.1 to 0.4m/s in 0.1m/s increments. During tied-belt locomotion, EMG burst durations and mean EMG amplitudes of all muscles respectively decreased and increased with increasing speed. During split-belt locomotion, there was a clear differential modulation of the EMG patterns between flexors and extensors and between the slow and fast sides. Changes in the EMG pattern of some muscles could be explained by the speed of the belt the limb was stepping on, while in other muscles there were clear dissociations from tied-belt values at matched speeds. Therefore, results show that EMG patterns during split-belt locomotion are modulated to meet task requirements partly via signals related to the stepping speed of the homonymous limb and from the other limbs.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Frigon
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Centre de recherche Clinique du Chus, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, Quebec J1H 5N4, Canada.
| | - Y Thibaudier
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Centre de recherche Clinique du Chus, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, Quebec J1H 5N4, Canada
| | - M-F Hurteau
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Centre de recherche Clinique du Chus, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, Quebec J1H 5N4, Canada
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25
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Hsieh ST. Tail loss and narrow surfaces decrease locomotor stability in the arboreal green anole lizard (Anolis carolinensis). J Exp Biol 2015; 219:364-73. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.124958] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2015] [Accepted: 11/12/2015] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Tails play an important role for dynamic stabilization during falling and jumping in lizards. Yet, tail autotomy (the voluntary loss of an appendage) is a common mechanism used for predator evasion among these animals. How tail autotomy impacts locomotor performance and stability remains poorly understood. The goal of this study was to determine how tail loss affects running kinematics and performance in the arboreal green anole lizard, Anolis carolinensis (Voigt, 1832). Lizards were run along four surface widths (9.5 mm, 15.9 mm, 19.0 mm, and flat), before and following 75% tail autotomy. Results indicate that when perturbed with changes in surface breadth and tail condition, surface breadth tends to have greater impacts on locomotor performance than does tail loss. Furthermore, while tail loss does have a destabilizing effect during regular running in these lizards, its function during steady locomotion is minimal. Instead, the tail likely plays a more active role during dynamic maneuvers that require dramatic changes in whole body orientation or center of mass trajectories.
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Affiliation(s)
- S. Tonia Hsieh
- Department of Biology, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA 19122, USA
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