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Perlmutter JI, Atadurdyyeva A, Schedl ME, Unckless RL. Wolbachia enhances the survival of Drosophila infected with fungal pathogens. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.09.30.560320. [PMID: 37873081 PMCID: PMC10592616 DOI: 10.1101/2023.09.30.560320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2023]
Abstract
Wolbachia bacteria of arthropods are at the forefront of basic and translational research on multipartite host-symbiont-pathogen interactions. These microbes are vertically inherited from mother to offspring via the cytoplasm. They are the most widespread endosymbionts on the planet due to their infamous ability to manipulate the reproduction of their hosts to spread themselves in a population, and to provide a variety of fitness benefits to their hosts. Importantly, some strains of Wolbachia can inhibit viral pathogenesis within and between arthropod hosts. Mosquitoes carrying the wMel Wolbachia strain of Drosophila melanogaster have a greatly reduced capacity to spread viruses like dengue and Zika to humans. Therefore, Wolbachia are the basis of several global vector control initiatives. While significant research efforts have focused on viruses, relatively little attention has been given to Wolbachia-fungal interactions despite the ubiquity of fungal entomopathogens in nature. Here, we demonstrate that Wolbachia increase the longevity of their Drosophila melanogaster hosts when challenged with a spectrum of yeast and filamentous fungal pathogens. We find that this pattern can vary based on host genotype, sex, and fungal species. Further, Wolbachia correlates with higher fertility and reduced pathogen titers during initial fungal infection, indicating a significant fitness benefit. This study demonstrates Wolbachia's role in diverse fungal pathogen interactions and determines that the phenotype is broad, but with several variables that influence both the presence and strength of the phenotype. These results enhance our knowledge of the strategies Wolbachia uses that likely contribute to such a high global symbiont prevalence.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Aylar Atadurdyyeva
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas, USA
| | - Margaret E. Schedl
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas, USA
| | - Robert L. Unckless
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas, USA
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2
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Nielsen TM, Baldwin J, Fedorka KM. Gene-poor Y-chromosomes substantially impact male trait heritabilities and may help shape sexually dimorphic evolution. Heredity (Edinb) 2023; 130:236-241. [PMID: 36759734 PMCID: PMC10076275 DOI: 10.1038/s41437-023-00596-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2022] [Revised: 12/22/2022] [Accepted: 01/30/2023] [Indexed: 02/11/2023] Open
Abstract
How natural selection facilitates sexually dimorphic evolution despite a shared genome is unclear. The patrilineal inheritance of Y-chromosomes makes them an appealing solution. However, they have largely been dismissed due to their gene-poor, heterochromatic nature and because the additive genetic variation necessary for adaptive evolution is theoretically difficult to maintain. Further, previous empirical work has revealed mostly Y-linked sign epistatic variance segregating within populations, which can often impede adaptive evolution. To assess the evolutionary impact of Y-linked variation, we established replicate populations in Drosophila simulans containing multiple Y-chromosomes (YN populations) or a single Y-chromosome variant (Y1 populations) drawn from a single population. We estimated male and female heritabilities for several traits known to be influenced by Y-chromosomes, including the number of sternopleural bristles, abdominal bristles, sex comb teeth, and tibia length. A decrease in YN heritabilities compared with Y1 would be consistent with Y-chromosome variation being sign epistatic. A decrease in Y1 heritabilities would be consistent with Y-chromosome variation being additive, though additive-by-additive epistatic variation cannot be entirely dismissed. Female heritability estimates served as controls and were not expected to differ. We found male Y1 populations exhibited lower heritabilities for all traits except tibia length; consistent with Y-linked additivity (on average YN trait heritabilities were 25% greater than Y1). Female estimates showed no difference. These data suggest Y-chromosomes should play an important role in male trait evolution and may even influence sexually dimorphic evolution by shaping traits shared by both sexes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tobias Møgelvang Nielsen
- University of Central Florida, Biological Sciences Building, 4110 Libra Dr., Orlando, FL, 32816, USA
| | - Jaden Baldwin
- University of Central Florida, Biological Sciences Building, 4110 Libra Dr., Orlando, FL, 32816, USA
| | - Kenneth M Fedorka
- University of Central Florida, Biological Sciences Building, 4110 Libra Dr., Orlando, FL, 32816, USA.
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3
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Layh S, Nagarajan-Radha V, Lemos B, Dowling DK. Y chromosome-linked variation affects locomotor activity in male Drosophila melanogaster and is robust to differences in thermal environment. Heredity (Edinb) 2023; 130:312-319. [PMID: 36914794 PMCID: PMC10163223 DOI: 10.1038/s41437-023-00604-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2021] [Revised: 02/09/2023] [Accepted: 02/10/2023] [Indexed: 03/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Although containing genes important for sex determination, genetic variation within the Y chromosome was traditionally predicted to contribute little to the expression of sexually dimorphic traits. This prediction was shaped by the assumption that the chromosome harbours few protein-coding genes, and that capacity for Y-linked variation to shape adaptation would be hindered by the chromosome's lack of recombination and holandric inheritance. Consequently, most studies exploring the genotypic contributions to sexually dimorphic traits have focused on the autosomes and X chromosome. Yet, several studies have now demonstrated that the Y chromosome harbours variation affecting male fitness, moderating the expression of hundreds of genes across the nuclear genome. Furthermore, emerging results have shown that expression of this Y-linked variation may be sensitive to environmental heterogeneity, leading to the prediction that Y-mediated gene-by-environment interactions will shape the expression of sexually dimorphic phenotypes. We tested this prediction, investigating whether genetic variation across six distinct Y chromosome haplotypes affects the expression of locomotor activity, at each of two temperatures (20 and 28 °C) in male fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster). Locomotor activity is a sexually dimorphic trait in this species, previously demonstrated to be under intralocus sexual conflict. We demonstrate Y haplotype effects on male locomotor activity, but the rank order and magnitude of these effects were unaltered by differences in temperature. Our study contributes to a growing number of studies demonstrating Y-linked effects moderating expression of traits evolving under sexually antagonistic selection, suggesting a role for the Y chromosome in shaping outcomes of sexual conflict.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sean Layh
- School of Biological Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Venkatesh Nagarajan-Radha
- School of Biological Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.,Behaviour Ecology and Evolution Lab, School of Life and Environmental Sciences, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, Australia
| | - Bernardo Lemos
- Molecular and Integrative Physiological Sciences Program, Department of Environmental Health, Harvard TH Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Damian K Dowling
- School of Biological Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.
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4
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Cīrulis A, Hansson B, Abbott JK. Sex-limited chromosomes and non-reproductive traits. BMC Biol 2022; 20:156. [PMID: 35794589 PMCID: PMC9261002 DOI: 10.1186/s12915-022-01357-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2021] [Accepted: 06/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Sex chromosomes are typically viewed as having originated from a pair of autosomes, and differentiated as the sex-limited chromosome (e.g. Y) has degenerated by losing most genes through cessation of recombination. While often thought that degenerated sex-limited chromosomes primarily affect traits involved in sex determination and sex cell production, accumulating evidence suggests they also influence traits not sex-limited or directly involved in reproduction. Here, we provide an overview of the effects of sex-limited chromosomes on non-reproductive traits in XY, ZW or UV sex determination systems, and discuss evolutionary processes maintaining variation at sex-limited chromosomes and molecular mechanisms affecting non-reproductive traits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aivars Cīrulis
- Department of Biology, Lund University, 223 62, Lund, Sweden.
| | - Bengt Hansson
- Department of Biology, Lund University, 223 62, Lund, Sweden
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5
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Antimicrobial Properties of a Peptide Derived from the Male Fertility Factor kl2 Protein of Drosophila melanogaster. Curr Issues Mol Biol 2022; 44:1169-1181. [PMID: 35723299 PMCID: PMC8947439 DOI: 10.3390/cimb44030076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2022] [Revised: 02/13/2022] [Accepted: 02/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are important components of innate immunity. Here, we report the antimicrobial properties of a peptide derived from the Male fertility factor kl2 (MFF-kl2) protein of Drosophila melanogaster, which was identified as a functional analog of the mammalian antibacterial chemerin-p4 peptide. The antimicrobial activity of multifunctional chemerin is mainly associated with a domain localized in the middle of the chemerin sequence, Val66-Pro85 peptide (chemerin-p4). Using bioinformatic tools, we found homologs of the chemerin-p4 peptide in the proteome of D. melanogaster. One of them is MFF-p1, which is a part of the MFF kl2 protein, encoded by the gene male fertility factor kl2 (kl-2) located on the long arm of the Y chromosome. The second detected peptide (Z-p1) is a part of the Zizimin protein belonging to DOCK family, which is involved in cellular signaling processes. After testing the antimicrobial properties of both peptides, we found that only MFF-p1 possesses these properties. Here, we demonstrate its antimicrobial potential both in vitro and in vivo after infecting D. melanogaster with bacteria. MFF-p1 strongly inhibits the viable counts of E. coli and B. subtilis after 2 h of treatment and disrupts bacterial cells. The expression of kl-2 is regulated by exposure to bacteria and by the circadian clock.
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6
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Geeta Arun M, Agarwala A, Syed ZA, Jigisha, Kashyap M, Venkatesan S, Chechi TS, Gupta V, Prasad NG. Experimental evolution reveals sex-specific dominance for surviving bacterial infection in laboratory populations of Drosophila melanogaster. Evol Lett 2021; 5:657-671. [PMID: 34919096 PMCID: PMC8645198 DOI: 10.1002/evl3.259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2021] [Revised: 08/11/2021] [Accepted: 08/13/2021] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Males and females are subjected to distinct kinds of selection pressures, often leading to the evolution of sex‐specific genetic architecture, an example being sex‐specific dominance. Sex‐specific dominance reversals (SSDRs), where alleles at sexually antagonistic loci are at least partially dominant in the sex they benefit, have been documented in Atlantic salmon, rainbow trout, and seed beetles. Another interesting feature of many sexually reproducing organisms is the asymmetric inheritance pattern of X chromosomes, which often leads to distinct evolutionary outcomes on X chromosomes compared to autosomes. Examples include the higher efficacy of sexually concordant selection on X chromosomes, and X chromosomes being more conducive to the maintenance of sexually antagonistic polymorphisms under certain conditions. Immunocompetence is a trait that has been extensively investigated for sexual dimorphism with growing evidence for sex‐specific or sexually antagonistic variation. X chromosomes have been shown to harbor substantial immunity‐related genetic variation in the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster. Here, using interpopulation crosses and cytogenetic cloning, we investigated sex‐specific dominance and the role of the X chromosome in improved postinfection survivorship of laboratory populations of D. melanogaster selected against pathogenic challenge by Pseudomonas entomophila. We could not detect any contribution of the X chromosome to the evolved immunocompetence of our selected populations, as well as to within‐population variation in immunocompetence. However, we found strong evidence of sex‐specific dominance related to surviving bacterial infection. Our results indicate that alleles that confer a survival advantage to the selected populations are, on average, partially dominant in females but partially recessive in males. This could also imply an SSDR for overall fitness, given the putative evidence for sexually antagonistic selection affecting immunocompetence in Drosophila melanogaster. We also highlight sex‐specific dominance as a potential mechanism of sex differences in immunocompetence, with population‐level sex differences primarily driven by sex differences in heterozygotes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manas Geeta Arun
- Department of Biological Sciences Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Mohali Mohali 140306 India
| | - Amisha Agarwala
- Department of Biological Sciences Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Mohali Mohali 140306 India.,Department of Biology Syracuse University Syracuse New York 13210
| | - Zeeshan Ali Syed
- Department of Biological Sciences Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Mohali Mohali 140306 India.,Department of Biology Syracuse University Syracuse New York 13210
| | - Jigisha
- Department of Biological Sciences Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Mohali Mohali 140306 India
| | - Mayank Kashyap
- Department of Biological Sciences Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Mohali Mohali 140306 India
| | - Saudamini Venkatesan
- Department of Biological Sciences Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Mohali Mohali 140306 India.,Institute of Evolutionary Biology, School of Biological Sciences, King's Buildings University of Edinburgh Edinburgh EH9 3FL United Kingdom
| | - Tejinder Singh Chechi
- Department of Biological Sciences Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Mohali Mohali 140306 India
| | - Vanika Gupta
- Department of Biological Sciences Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Mohali Mohali 140306 India.,Department of Entomology Cornell University Ithaca New York 14853
| | - Nagaraj Guru Prasad
- Department of Biological Sciences Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Mohali Mohali 140306 India
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7
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Chakraborty M, Chang CH, Khost DE, Vedanayagam J, Adrion JR, Liao Y, Montooth KL, Meiklejohn CD, Larracuente AM, Emerson JJ. Evolution of genome structure in the Drosophila simulans species complex. Genome Res 2021; 31:380-396. [PMID: 33563718 PMCID: PMC7919458 DOI: 10.1101/gr.263442.120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2020] [Accepted: 12/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
The rapid evolution of repetitive DNA sequences, including satellite DNA, tandem duplications, and transposable elements, underlies phenotypic evolution and contributes to hybrid incompatibilities between species. However, repetitive genomic regions are fragmented and misassembled in most contemporary genome assemblies. We generated highly contiguous de novo reference genomes for the Drosophila simulans species complex (D. simulans, D. mauritiana, and D. sechellia), which speciated ∼250,000 yr ago. Our assemblies are comparable in contiguity and accuracy to the current D. melanogaster genome, allowing us to directly compare repetitive sequences between these four species. We find that at least 15% of the D. simulans complex species genomes fail to align uniquely to D. melanogaster owing to structural divergence-twice the number of single-nucleotide substitutions. We also find rapid turnover of satellite DNA and extensive structural divergence in heterochromatic regions, whereas the euchromatic gene content is mostly conserved. Despite the overall preservation of gene synteny, euchromatin in each species has been shaped by clade- and species-specific inversions, transposable elements, expansions and contractions of satellite and tRNA tandem arrays, and gene duplications. We also find rapid divergence among Y-linked genes, including copy number variation and recent gene duplications from autosomes. Our assemblies provide a valuable resource for studying genome evolution and its consequences for phenotypic evolution in these genetic model species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahul Chakraborty
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California Irvine, Irvine, California 92697, USA
| | - Ching-Ho Chang
- Department of Biology, University of Rochester, Rochester, New York 14627, USA
| | - Danielle E Khost
- Department of Biology, University of Rochester, Rochester, New York 14627, USA
- FAS Informatics and Scientific Applications, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA
| | - Jeffrey Vedanayagam
- Department of Developmental Biology, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York 10065, USA
| | - Jeffrey R Adrion
- Institute of Ecology and Evolution, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon 97403, USA
| | - Yi Liao
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California Irvine, Irvine, California 92697, USA
| | - Kristi L Montooth
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska 68502, USA
| | - Colin D Meiklejohn
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska 68502, USA
| | | | - J J Emerson
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California Irvine, Irvine, California 92697, USA
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8
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Bartolo G, Gonzalez LO, Levitin A, Martchenko Shilman M. Drosophila melanogaster Y Chromosome Genes Affect Male Sensitivity to Microbial Infections. INSECTS 2021; 12:30. [PMID: 33466347 PMCID: PMC7824794 DOI: 10.3390/insects12010030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2020] [Revised: 12/31/2020] [Accepted: 01/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The genders of Drosophila melanogaster vary in their sensitivities to microbial pathogens. While many of the immunity-related genes are located on the X chromosome, the polymorphisms within the Y chromosome were also shown to affect the immunity of flies. In this study, we investigated the necessity of individual genes on the Y chromosome (Y-genes) for male sensitivity to microbes. We identified several Y-genes whose genetic inactivation either increases or decreases the sensitivity of males to gastrointestinal infections with fungal Saccharomyces cerevisiae and bacterial Serratia liquefaciens. Specifically, the loss of function mutations in fly kl-5 and Ppr-Y Y-genes lead to increased and decreased sensitivity of males to fungal challenge, respectively, compared to female sensitivity. In contrast, mutations in Drosophila Pp1-Y1, kl-5, kl-3, Ppr-Y, CCY, and FDY Y-genes lead to increased sensitivity of males to bacterial infection, compared to females. Moreover, while these Y-genes are necessary, the Y chromosome is not sufficient for the sensitivity of males to microbes, since the sensitivity of XXY females to fungal and bacterial challenges was not different from the sensitivity of wild-type female flies, compared to males. This study assigns a new immunity-related function to numerous Y-genes in D. melanogaster.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Mikhail Martchenko Shilman
- Henry E. Riggs School of Applied Life Sciences, Keck Graduate Institute, 535 Watson Drive, Claremont, CA 91711, USA; (G.B.); (L.O.G.); (A.L.)
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9
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Camsari C, Folger JK, Rajput SK, McGee D, Latham KE, Smith GW. Transgenerational Effects of Periconception Heavy Metal Administration on Adipose Weight and Glucose Homeostasis in Mice at Maturity. Toxicol Sci 2020; 168:610-619. [PMID: 30629257 DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfz008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
We previously demonstrated that periconception maternal administration (2 mg/kg body weight each) of cadmium chloride (CdCl2) plus methylmercury (II) chloride (CH3HgCl) impaired glucose homeostasis and increased body weights and abdominal adipose tissue weight of male offspring in the F1 generation. However, transgenerational effects of this exposure have not been studied. Therefore, the effects of periconception Cd+Hg administration on indices of chronic diseases at adulthood in F2-F4 generations were examined. Male and female progeny of Cd+Hg periconceptionally treated females, and offspring of vehicle control females were bred with naïve CD1 mice to obtain F2 offspring, with additional crosses as above to the F4 generation (F1-F4 animals were not administered Cd+Hg). Birth weights and litter size were similar in all generations. Indices of impaired glucose homeostasis were observed in matrilineally descended F2 male offspring, including reduced glucose tolerance, along with increased basal phosphorylation of insulin receptor substrate 1 (IRS1) at serine 307 suggesting altered insulin signaling. Reduced glucose tolerance was also seen in F4 males. Increased body weight and/or abdominal adiposity were observed through the F4 generation in males descended matrilineally from the treated female progenitors. Patrilineally derived F2 females displayed reduced glucose tolerance. Females (F2) patrilineally and matrilineally derived displayed significant kidney enlargement. Periconception administration of cadmium and mercury caused persistent transgenerational effects in offspring through the F4 generation in the absence of continued toxicant exposure, with persistent transgenerational effects inherited specifically through the matrilineal germline.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cagri Camsari
- Laboratory of Mammalian Reproductive Biology and Genomics.,Department of Animal Science, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824.,Innovative Food Technologies Development Application and Research Center, Bolu Abant Izzet Baysal University, Bolu 14030, Turkey
| | - Joseph K Folger
- Laboratory of Mammalian Reproductive Biology and Genomics.,Department of Animal Science, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824
| | - Sandeep K Rajput
- Laboratory of Mammalian Reproductive Biology and Genomics.,Department of Animal Science, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824
| | - Devin McGee
- Laboratory of Mammalian Reproductive Biology and Genomics.,Department of Animal Science, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824
| | - Keith E Latham
- Department of Animal Science, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824.,Reproductive and Developmental Sciences Program, Department of Animal Science, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824
| | - George W Smith
- Laboratory of Mammalian Reproductive Biology and Genomics.,Department of Animal Science, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824
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10
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Belmonte RL, Corbally MK, Duneau DF, Regan JC. Sexual Dimorphisms in Innate Immunity and Responses to Infection in Drosophila melanogaster. Front Immunol 2020; 10:3075. [PMID: 32076419 PMCID: PMC7006818 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.03075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2019] [Accepted: 12/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The sexes show profound differences in responses to infection and the development of autoimmunity. Dimorphisms in immune responses are ubiquitous across taxa, from arthropods to vertebrates. Drosophila melanogaster shows strong sex dimorphisms in immune system responses at baseline, upon pathogenic challenge, and over aging. We have performed an exhaustive survey of peer-reviewed literature on Drosophila immunity, and present a database of publications indicating the sex(es) analyzed in each study. While we found a growing interest in the community in adult immunity and in reporting both sexes, the main body of work in this field uses only one sex, or does not stratify by sex. We synthesize evidence for sexually dimorphic responses to bacterial, viral, and fungal infections. Dimorphisms may be mediated by distinct immune compartments, and we review work on sex differences in behavioral, epithelial, cellular, and systemic (fat body-mediated) immunity. Emerging work on sexually dimorphic aging of immune tissues, immune senescence, and inflammation are examined. We consider evolutionary drivers for sex differences in immune investment, highlight the features of Drosophila biology that make it particularly amenable to studies of immune dimorphisms, and discuss areas for future exploration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca L. Belmonte
- Institute of Immunology & Infection Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Mary-Kate Corbally
- Institute of Immunology & Infection Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - David F. Duneau
- Laboratoire Evolution & Diversite Biologique, UMR5174 EDB, CNRS, Université Toulouse 3 Paul Sabatier, Toulouse, France
| | - Jennifer C. Regan
- Institute of Immunology & Infection Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
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11
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Lea JK, Unckless RL. An assessment of the immune costs associated with meiotic drive elements in Drosophila. Proc Biol Sci 2019; 286:20191534. [PMID: 31530140 PMCID: PMC6784720 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2019.1534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2019] [Accepted: 08/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Most organisms are constantly adapting to pathogens and parasites that exploit their host for their own benefit. Less studied, but perhaps more ubiquitous, are intragenomic parasites or selfish genetic elements. These include transposable elements, selfish B chromosomes and meiotic drivers that promote their own replication without regard to fitness effects on hosts. Therefore, intragenomic parasites are also a constant evolutionary pressure on hosts. Gamete-killing meiotic drive elements are often associated with large chromosomal inversions that reduce recombination between the drive and wild-type chromosomes. This reduced recombination is thought to reduce the efficacy of selection on the drive chromosome and allow for the accumulation of deleterious mutations. We tested whether gamete-killing meiotic drive chromosomes were associated with reduced immune defence against two bacterial pathogens in three species of Drosophila. We found little evidence of reduced immune defence in lines with meiotic drive. One line carrying the Drosophila melanogaster autosomal Segregation Distorter did show reduced defence, but we were unable to attribute that reduced defence to either genotype or immune gene expression differences. Our results suggest that though gamete-killing meiotic drive chromosomes probably accumulate deleterious mutations, those mutations do not result in reduced capacity for immune defence.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Robert L. Unckless
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66045, USA
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12
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Kutch IC, Fedorka KM. Y-chromosomes can constrain adaptive evolution via epistatic interactions with other chromosomes. BMC Evol Biol 2018; 18:204. [PMID: 30587105 PMCID: PMC6307184 DOI: 10.1186/s12862-018-1327-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2018] [Accepted: 12/12/2018] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Variation in the non-coding regions of Y-chromosomes have been shown to influence gene regulation throughout the genome in some systems; a phenomenon termed Y-linked regulatory variation (YRV). This type of sex-specific genetic variance could have important implications for the evolution of male and female traits. If YRV contributes to the additive genetic variation of an autosomally coded trait shared between the sexes (e.g. body size), then selection could facilitate sexually dimorphic evolution via the Y-chromosome. In contrast, if YRV is entirely non-additive (i.e. interacts epistatically with other chromosomes), then Y-chromosomes could constrain trait evolution in both sexes whenever they are selected for the same trait value. The ability for this phenomenon to influence such fundamental evolutionary dynamics remains unexplored. Results Here we address the evolutionary contribution of Y-linked variance by selecting for improved male geotaxis in populations possessing multiple Y-chromosomes (i.e. possessed Y-linked additive and/or epistatic variation) or a single Y-chromosome variant (i.e. possessed no Y-linked variation). We found that males from populations possessing Y-linked variation did not significantly respond to selection; however, males from populations with no Y-linked variation did respond. These patterns suggest the presence of a large quantity of Y-linked epistatic variance in the multi-Y population that dramatically slowed its response. Conclusions Our results imply that YRV is unlikely to facilitate the evolution of sexually dimorphic traits (at least for the trait examined here), but can interfere with the rate of trait evolution in both males and females. This result could have real biological implications as it suggests that YRV can affect how quickly a population responds to new selective pressures (e.g. invasive species, novel pathogens, or climate change). Considering that YRV influences hundreds of genes and is likely typical of other independently-evolved hemizygous chromosomes, YRV-like phenomena may represent common and significant costs to hemizygous sex determination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ian C Kutch
- Biological Sciences Building, University of Central Florida, 4110 Libra Dr, Orlando, FL, 32816, USA.
| | - Kenneth M Fedorka
- Biological Sciences Building, University of Central Florida, 4110 Libra Dr, Orlando, FL, 32816, USA
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13
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Margres MJ, Jones ME, Epstein B, Kerlin DH, Comte S, Fox S, Fraik AK, Hendricks SA, Huxtable S, Lachish S, Lazenby B, O'Rourke SM, Stahlke AR, Wiench CG, Hamede R, Schönfeld B, McCallum H, Miller MR, Hohenlohe PA, Storfer A. Large-effect loci affect survival in Tasmanian devils (Sarcophilus harrisii) infected with a transmissible cancer. Mol Ecol 2018; 27:4189-4199. [PMID: 30171778 DOI: 10.1111/mec.14853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2018] [Revised: 08/22/2018] [Accepted: 08/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Identifying the genetic architecture of complex phenotypes is a central goal of modern biology, particularly for disease-related traits. Genome-wide association methods are a classical approach for identifying the genomic basis of variation in disease phenotypes, but such analyses are particularly challenging in natural populations due to sample size difficulties. Extensive mark-recapture data, strong linkage disequilibrium and a lethal transmissible cancer make the Tasmanian devil (Sarcophilus harrisii) an ideal model for such an association study. We used a RAD-capture approach to genotype 624 devils at ~16,000 loci and then used association analyses to assess the heritability of three cancer-related phenotypes: infection case-control (where cases were infected devils and controls were devils that were never infected), age of first infection and survival following infection. The SNP array explained much of the phenotypic variance for female survival (>80%) and female case-control (>61%). We found that a few large-effect SNPs explained much of the variance for female survival (~5 SNPs explained >61% of the total variance), whereas more SNPs (~56) of smaller effect explained less of the variance for female case-control (~23% of the total variance). By contrast, these same SNPs did not account for a significant proportion of phenotypic variance in males, suggesting that the genetic bases of these traits and/or selection differ across sexes. Loci involved with cell adhesion and cell-cycle regulation underlay trait variation, suggesting that the devil immune system is rapidly evolving to recognize and potentially suppress cancer growth through these pathways. Overall, our study provided necessary data for genomics-based conservation and management in Tasmanian devils.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark J Margres
- School of Biological Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington
| | - Menna E Jones
- School of Zoology, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia
| | - Brendan Epstein
- School of Biological Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington
| | - Douglas H Kerlin
- School of Environment, Griffith University, Nathan, Queensland, Australia
| | - Sebastien Comte
- School of Zoology, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia
| | - Samantha Fox
- Save the Tasmanian Devil Program, Department of Primary Industries, Parks, Water and Environment, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia
| | - Alexandra K Fraik
- School of Biological Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington
| | - Sarah A Hendricks
- Department of Biological Sciences, Institute for Bioinformatics and Evolutionary Studies, University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho
| | - Stewart Huxtable
- Save the Tasmanian Devil Program, Department of Primary Industries, Parks, Water and Environment, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia
| | | | - Billie Lazenby
- Save the Tasmanian Devil Program, Department of Primary Industries, Parks, Water and Environment, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia
| | - Sean M O'Rourke
- Department of Animal Science, University of California, Davis, Davis, California
| | - Amanda R Stahlke
- Department of Biological Sciences, Institute for Bioinformatics and Evolutionary Studies, University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho
| | - Cody G Wiench
- Department of Biological Sciences, Institute for Bioinformatics and Evolutionary Studies, University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho
| | - Rodrigo Hamede
- School of Zoology, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia.,Centre for Integrative Ecology, Deakin University, Waurn Ponds, Victoria, Australia
| | - Barbara Schönfeld
- School of Zoology, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia
| | - Hamish McCallum
- School of Environment, Griffith University, Nathan, Queensland, Australia
| | - Michael R Miller
- Department of Animal Science, University of California, Davis, Davis, California
| | - Paul A Hohenlohe
- Department of Biological Sciences, Institute for Bioinformatics and Evolutionary Studies, University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho
| | - Andrew Storfer
- School of Biological Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington
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14
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Buchanan JL, Meiklejohn CD, Montooth KL. Mitochondrial Dysfunction and Infection Generate Immunity-Fecundity Tradeoffs in Drosophila. Integr Comp Biol 2018; 58:591-603. [PMID: 29945242 PMCID: PMC6145415 DOI: 10.1093/icb/icy078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Physiological responses to short-term environmental stressors, such as infection, can have long-term consequences for fitness, particularly if the responses are inappropriate or nutrient resources are limited. Genetic variation affecting energy acquisition, storage, and usage can limit cellular energy availability and may influence resource-allocation tradeoffs even when environmental nutrients are plentiful. Here, we utilized Drosophila mitochondrial-nuclear genotypes to test whether disrupted mitochondrial function interferes with nutrient-sensing pathways, and whether this disruption has consequences for tradeoffs between immunity and fecundity. We found that an energetically-compromised genotype was relatively resistant to rapamycin-a drug that targets nutrient-sensing pathways and mimics resource limitation. Dietary resource limitation decreased survival of energetically-compromised flies. Furthermore, survival of infection with a natural pathogen was decreased in this genotype, and females of this genotype experienced immunity-fecundity tradeoffs that were not evident in genotypic controls with normal energy metabolism. Together, these results suggest that this genotype may have little excess energetic capacity and fewer cellular nutrients, even when environmental nutrients are not limiting. Genetic variation in energy metabolism may therefore act to limit the resources available for allocation to life-history traits in ways that generate tradeoffs even when environmental resources are not limiting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justin L Buchanan
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Nebraska–Lincoln, 1104 T St, Lincoln, NE 68588-0118, USA
| | - Colin D Meiklejohn
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Nebraska–Lincoln, 1104 T St, Lincoln, NE 68588-0118, USA
| | - Kristi L Montooth
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Nebraska–Lincoln, 1104 T St, Lincoln, NE 68588-0118, USA
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15
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Kaidonis G, Rao AN, Ouyang YB, Stary CM. Elucidating sex differences in response to cerebral ischemia: immunoregulatory mechanisms and the role of microRNAs. Prog Neurobiol 2018; 176:73-85. [PMID: 30121237 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2018.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2018] [Revised: 06/04/2018] [Accepted: 08/05/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Cerebral ischemia remains a major cause of death and disability worldwide, yet therapeutic options remain limited. Differences in sex and age play an important role in the final outcome in response to cerebral ischemia in both experimental and clinical studies: males have a higher risk and worse outcome than females at younger ages and this trend reverses in older ages. Although the molecular mechanisms underlying sex dimorphism are complex and are still not well understood, studies suggest steroid hormones, sex chromosomes, differential cell death and immune pathways, and sex-specific microRNAs may contribute to the outcome following cerebral ischemia. This review focuses on differential effects between males and females on cell death and immunological pathways in response to cerebral ischemia, the central role of innate sex differences in steroid hormone signaling, and upstreamregulation of sexually dimorphic gene expression by microRNAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georgia Kaidonis
- Stanford University School of Medicine, Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative & Pain Medicine, United States; Stanford University School of Medicine, Department of Ophthalmology, United States
| | - Anand N Rao
- Stanford University School of Medicine, Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative & Pain Medicine, United States
| | - Yi-Bing Ouyang
- Stanford University School of Medicine, Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative & Pain Medicine, United States
| | - Creed M Stary
- Stanford University School of Medicine, Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative & Pain Medicine, United States.
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16
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Branco AT, Brito RM, Lemos B. Sex-specific adaptation and genomic responses to Y chromosome presence in female reproductive and neural tissues. Proc Biol Sci 2018; 284:rspb.2017.2062. [PMID: 29237855 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2017.2062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2017] [Accepted: 11/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Y chromosomes typically harbour a small number of genes and an abundance of repetitive sequences. In Drosophila, the Y chromosome comprises multimegabase long segments of repetitive DNA and a handful of protein-coding genes. In mammals, the Y chromosome also harbours a disproportionally high abundance of repeats. Here, we built on a Drosophila melanogaster model in which the Y chromosome is decoupled from sexual determination. Genotypes were genetically identical for the autosomes, X chromosome, and mitochondria, but differ by the presence or dose of the Y chromosome. Addition of an extra Y chromosome had limited impact in males. However, the presence of a Y chromosome in females induced a disproportionate response in genes expressed in the ovaries as well as genes encoded by the mitochondrial genome. Furthermore, the data revealed significant consequences of Y chromosome presence in larvae neuronal tissue. This included the repression of genes implicated in reproductive behaviour, courtship, mating and synaptic function. Our findings exhibit the Y chromosome as a hotspot for sex-specific adaptation. They suggest roles for natural selection on Y-linked genetic elements exerting impact on sex-specific tissues as well as somatic tissues shared by males and females.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alan T Branco
- Program in Molecular and Integrative Physiological Sciences, Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, 665 Huntington Avenue, 02115, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Rute M Brito
- Program in Molecular and Integrative Physiological Sciences, Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, 665 Huntington Avenue, 02115, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Bernardo Lemos
- Program in Molecular and Integrative Physiological Sciences, Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, 665 Huntington Avenue, 02115, Boston, MA, USA
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17
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Duneau DF, Kondolf HC, Im JH, Ortiz GA, Chow C, Fox MA, Eugénio AT, Revah J, Buchon N, Lazzaro BP. The Toll pathway underlies host sexual dimorphism in resistance to both Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria in mated Drosophila. BMC Biol 2017; 15:124. [PMID: 29268741 PMCID: PMC5740927 DOI: 10.1186/s12915-017-0466-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2017] [Accepted: 11/30/2017] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Host sexual dimorphism is being increasingly recognized to generate strong differences in the outcome of infectious disease, but the mechanisms underlying immunological differences between males and females remain poorly characterized. Here, we used Drosophila melanogaster to assess and dissect sexual dimorphism in the innate response to systemic bacterial infection. RESULTS We demonstrated sexual dimorphism in susceptibility to infection by a broad spectrum of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. We found that both virgin and mated females are more susceptible than mated males to most, but not all, infections. We investigated in more detail the lower resistance of females to infection with Providencia rettgeri, a Gram-negative bacterium that naturally infects D. melanogaster. We found that females have a higher number of phagocytes than males and that ablation of hemocytes does not eliminate the dimorphism in resistance to P. rettgeri, so the observed dimorphism does not stem from differences in the cellular response. The Imd pathway is critical for the production of antimicrobial peptides in response to Gram-negative bacteria, but mutants for Imd signaling continued to exhibit dimorphism even though both sexes showed strongly reduced resistance. Instead, we found that the Toll pathway is responsible for the dimorphism in resistance. The Toll pathway is dimorphic in genome-wide constitutive gene expression and in induced response to infection. Toll signaling is dimorphic in both constitutive signaling and in induced activation in response to P. rettgeri infection. The dimorphism in pathway activation can be specifically attributed to Persephone-mediated immune stimulation, by which the Toll pathway is triggered in response to pathogen-derived virulence factors. We additionally found that, in absence of Toll signaling, males become more susceptible than females to the Gram-positive Enterococcus faecalis. This reversal in susceptibility between male and female Toll pathway mutants compared to wildtype hosts highlights the key role of the Toll pathway in D. melanogaster sexual dimorphism in resistance to infection. CONCLUSION Altogether, our data demonstrate that Toll pathway activity differs between male and female D. melanogaster in response to bacterial infection, thus identifying innate immune signaling as a determinant of sexual immune dimorphism.
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Affiliation(s)
- David F Duneau
- Université Toulouse 3 Paul Sabatier, CNRS, ENFA, UMR5174 EDB (Laboratoire Évolution & Diversité Biologique), 118 route de Narbonne, F-31062, Toulouse, France. .,CNRS, Université Paul Sabatier, UMR5174 EDB, F-31062, Toulouse, France.
| | - Hannah C Kondolf
- Université Toulouse 3 Paul Sabatier, CNRS, ENFA, UMR5174 EDB (Laboratoire Évolution & Diversité Biologique), 118 route de Narbonne, F-31062, Toulouse, France.,Present Address: Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
| | - Joo Hyun Im
- Université Toulouse 3 Paul Sabatier, CNRS, ENFA, UMR5174 EDB (Laboratoire Évolution & Diversité Biologique), 118 route de Narbonne, F-31062, Toulouse, France.,Cornell Institute of Host Microbe Interactions and Disease, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Gerardo A Ortiz
- Université Toulouse 3 Paul Sabatier, CNRS, ENFA, UMR5174 EDB (Laboratoire Évolution & Diversité Biologique), 118 route de Narbonne, F-31062, Toulouse, France
| | - Christopher Chow
- Université Toulouse 3 Paul Sabatier, CNRS, ENFA, UMR5174 EDB (Laboratoire Évolution & Diversité Biologique), 118 route de Narbonne, F-31062, Toulouse, France
| | - Michael A Fox
- Université Toulouse 3 Paul Sabatier, CNRS, ENFA, UMR5174 EDB (Laboratoire Évolution & Diversité Biologique), 118 route de Narbonne, F-31062, Toulouse, France
| | - Ana T Eugénio
- Instituto Gulbenkian de Ciência, Rua da Quinta Grande 6, P-2780, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - J Revah
- Université Toulouse 3 Paul Sabatier, CNRS, ENFA, UMR5174 EDB (Laboratoire Évolution & Diversité Biologique), 118 route de Narbonne, F-31062, Toulouse, France.,Cornell Institute of Host Microbe Interactions and Disease, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Nicolas Buchon
- Université Toulouse 3 Paul Sabatier, CNRS, ENFA, UMR5174 EDB (Laboratoire Évolution & Diversité Biologique), 118 route de Narbonne, F-31062, Toulouse, France.,Cornell Institute of Host Microbe Interactions and Disease, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Brian P Lazzaro
- Université Toulouse 3 Paul Sabatier, CNRS, ENFA, UMR5174 EDB (Laboratoire Évolution & Diversité Biologique), 118 route de Narbonne, F-31062, Toulouse, France.,Cornell Institute of Host Microbe Interactions and Disease, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
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18
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Kutch IC, Fedorka KM. A test for Y-linked additive and epistatic effects on surviving bacterial infections in Drosophila melanogaster. J Evol Biol 2017; 30:1400-1408. [DOI: 10.1111/jeb.13118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2017] [Accepted: 05/11/2017] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- I. C. Kutch
- University of Central Florida; Orlando FL USA
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19
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Willink B, Svensson EI. Intra- and intersexual differences in parasite resistance and female fitness tolerance in a polymorphic insect. Proc Biol Sci 2017; 284:20162407. [PMID: 28123090 PMCID: PMC5310041 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2016.2407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2016] [Accepted: 12/20/2016] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
To understand host-parasite interactions, it is necessary to quantify variation and covariation in defence traits. We quantified parasite resistance and fitness tolerance of a polymorphic damselfly (Ischnura elegans), an insect with three discrete female colour morphs but with monomorphic males. We quantified sex and morph differences in parasite resistance (prevalence and intensity of water mite infections) and morph-specific fitness tolerance in the females in natural populations for over a decade. There was no evidence for higher parasite susceptibility in males as a cost of sexual selection, whereas differences in defence mechanisms between female morphs are consistent with correlational selection operating on combinations of parasite resistance and tolerance. We suggest that tolerance differences between female morphs interact with frequency-dependent sexual conflict, which maintains the polymorphism locally. Host-parasite interactions can therefore shape intra- and intersexual phenotypic divergence and interfere with sexual selection and sexual conflict.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beatriz Willink
- Department of Biology, Evolutionary Ecology Unit, Lund University, Ecology Building, Lund 223-62, Sweden
| | - Erik I Svensson
- Department of Biology, Evolutionary Ecology Unit, Lund University, Ecology Building, Lund 223-62, Sweden
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20
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Flanagan KL, Plebanski M. Sex-differential heterologous (non-specific) effects of vaccines: an emerging public health issue that needs to be understood and exploited. Expert Rev Vaccines 2016; 16:5-13. [DOI: 10.1080/14760584.2016.1203260] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Katie L. Flanagan
- Vaccine and Infectious Diseases Laboratory, Department of Immunology and Pathology, Monash University, Prahran, Australia
| | - Magdalena Plebanski
- Vaccine and Infectious Diseases Laboratory, Department of Immunology and Pathology, Monash University, Prahran, Australia
- Monash Institute of Medical Engineering, Monash University, Prahran, Australia
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