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Willert MS, France CAM, Baldwin CC, Hay ME. Historic trophic decline in New England's coastal marine ecosystem. Oecologia 2023:10.1007/s00442-023-05410-0. [PMID: 37335365 DOI: 10.1007/s00442-023-05410-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2022] [Accepted: 06/12/2023] [Indexed: 06/21/2023]
Abstract
Overfishing is a worldwide occurrence that simplifies marine food webs, changes trophic patterns, and alters community structure, affecting not only the density of harvested species but also their trophic function. The northwestern Atlantic has a history of heavy fishing, and over the past century has also experienced destructive bottom fishing and harmful mobile fishing gear. After confirming that preservation solvent did not alter the nitrogen stable isotopes of preserved samples, we used museum specimens and modern samples to analyze nitrogen stable isotopes in tissues of two common demersal fishes pre-1950 (1850 to 1950) compared to 2021 to assess changes in trophic positions of coastal New England consumers over this time period. Both the mesopredator Centropristis striata (black sea bass) and the benthivore Stenotomus chrysops (scup) experienced significant declines in trophic position during this time. C. striata declined almost a full trophic level, S. chrysops declined half a trophic level, and these species are now occupying almost the same trophic position. Heavy fishing activities potentially shorten food chains, simplify trophic complexity, lessen the separation of trophic niches, and generally flatten food webs. The consequences of these within-species shifts are poorly investigated but could generate underappreciated cascading impacts on community structure and function. Archived natural-history collections are an invaluable resource for investigating ecological changes in natural communities through time. The evaluation of changing trophic positions via stable isotope analysis may allow fisheries managers to quantify large-scale effects of fishing on ecosystems and food webs over time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Madison S Willert
- School of Biological Sciences and Center for Microbial Dynamics and Infection, Georgia Institute of Technology, 311 Ferst Drive, Atlanta, GA, 30332-0230, USA
- Department of Vertebrate Zoology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, 20560, USA
| | - Christine A M France
- Smithsonian Museum Conservation Institute, 4210 Silver Hill Rd., Suitland, MD, 20746, USA
| | - Carole C Baldwin
- Department of Vertebrate Zoology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, 20560, USA
| | - Mark E Hay
- School of Biological Sciences and Center for Microbial Dynamics and Infection, Georgia Institute of Technology, 311 Ferst Drive, Atlanta, GA, 30332-0230, USA.
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2
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Choi B, Lee C, Takizawa Y, Chikaraishi Y, Oh H, Chang K, Jang M, Kim H, Lee K, Shin K. Trophic response to ecological conditions of habitats: Evidence from trophic variability of freshwater fish. Ecol Evol 2020; 10:7250-7260. [PMID: 32760526 PMCID: PMC7391550 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.6451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2019] [Revised: 05/05/2020] [Accepted: 05/07/2020] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
To adapt to ecological and environmental conditions, species can change their ecological niche (e.g., interactions among species) and function (e.g., prey-predation, diet competition, and habitat segregation) at the species and guild levels. Stable isotope analysis of bulk carbon and nitrogen of organisms has conventionally been used to evaluate such adaptabilities in the scenopoetic and bionomic views as the isotopic niche width.Compound-specific stable isotope analysis (CSIA) of nitrogen within amino acids provides trophic information without any disruption of scenopoetic views in the isotope ratios, unlike conventional bulk isotope analysis provides both information and therefore frequently hinders its usefulness for trophic information.We performed CSIA of amino acids to understand the trophic variability of the pike gudgeon Pseudogobio esocinus and largemouth bass Micropterus salmoides as representative specialist and generalist fish species, respectively, from 16 ecologically variable habitats in the four major rivers of Korea.There was little variation (1σ) in the trophic position (TP) among habitats for P. esocinus (± 0.2); however, there was considerably large variation for M. salmoides (± 0.6). The TP of M. salmoides was negatively correlated with the benthic invertebrate indices of the habitats, whereas the TP of P. esocinus showed no significant correlation with any indices. Thus, these two representative fish species have different trophic responses to ecological conditions, which is related to known differences in the trophic niche between specialists (i.e., small niche width) and generalists (i.e., large niche width).Over the past four decades, the conventional bulk isotope analysis has not been capable of deconvoluting "scenopoetic" and "bionomic" information. However, in the present study, we demonstrated that the CSIA of amino acids could isolate trophic niches from the traditional ecological niche composed of trophic and habitat information and evaluated how biological and ecological indices influence the trophic response of specialists and generalists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bohyung Choi
- Department of Marine Sciences and Convergent TechnologyHanyang UniversityAnsanKorea
- Institute of Low Temperature ScienceHokkaido UniversitySapporoJapan
| | - Changhwa Lee
- Department of Marine Sciences and Convergent TechnologyHanyang UniversityAnsanKorea
| | - Yuko Takizawa
- Institute of Low Temperature ScienceHokkaido UniversitySapporoJapan
| | - Yoshito Chikaraishi
- Institute of Low Temperature ScienceHokkaido UniversitySapporoJapan
- Japan Agency for Marine‐Earth Science and TechnologyYokosukaJapan
| | - Hye‐Ji Oh
- Department of Environmental Science and EngineeringKyung Hee UniversityYonginKorea
| | - Kwang‐Hyeon Chang
- Department of Environmental Science and EngineeringKyung Hee UniversityYonginKorea
| | - Min‐Ho Jang
- Department of Biology EducationKongju National UniversityGongjuKorea
| | - Hyun‐Woo Kim
- Department of Environmental EducationSunchon National UniversitySunchonKorea
| | - Kyung‐Lak Lee
- Watershed Ecology Research TeamNational Institute of Environmental ResearchIncheonKorea
| | - Kyung‐Hoon Shin
- Department of Marine Sciences and Convergent TechnologyHanyang UniversityAnsanKorea
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3
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Guiry E. Complexities of Stable Carbon and Nitrogen Isotope Biogeochemistry in Ancient Freshwater Ecosystems: Implications for the Study of Past Subsistence and Environmental Change. Front Ecol Evol 2019. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2019.00313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
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4
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Barrett JH. An environmental (pre)history of European fishing: past and future archaeological contributions to sustainable fisheries. JOURNAL OF FISH BIOLOGY 2019; 94:1033-1044. [PMID: 30746714 DOI: 10.1111/jfb.13929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2018] [Accepted: 02/11/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
This paper explores the past and potential contribution of archaeology to marine historical ecology. The primary focus is European fishing of marine and diadromous taxa, with global comparisons highlighting the wider applicability of archaeological approaches. The review illustrates how study of excavated fish bones, otoliths and shells can inform our understanding of: (a) changes in biogeography, including the previous distribution of lost species; (b) long-term fluctuations in the aquatic environment, including climate change; (c) the intensity of exploitation and other anthropogenic effects; (d) trade, commodification and globalisation. These issues are also relevant to inform fisheries conservation and management targets. Equally important, the long (pre)history of European fishing raises awareness of our ecological heritage debt, owed for centuries of wealth, sustenance and well-being, and for which we share collective responsibility. This debt represents both a loss and a reason for optimism, insofar as it is a reservoir of potential to be filled by careful stewardship of our rivers, lakes, seas and oceans.
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Affiliation(s)
- James H Barrett
- McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Department of Archaeology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- Trinity Centre for Environmental Humanities, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
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5
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Reynolds SJ, Hughes BJ, Wearn CP, Dickey RC, Brown J, Weber NL, Weber SB, Paiva VH, Ramos JA. Long-term dietary shift and population decline of a pelagic seabird-A health check on the tropical Atlantic? GLOBAL CHANGE BIOLOGY 2019; 25:1383-1394. [PMID: 30712272 DOI: 10.1111/gcb.14560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2018] [Accepted: 11/23/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
In the face of accelerating ecological change to the world's oceans, seabirds are some of the best bio-indicators of marine ecosystem function. However, unravelling ecological changes that pre-date modern monitoring programmes remains challenging. Using stable isotope analysis of feathers and regurgitants collected from sooty terns (Onychoprion fuscatus) nesting at a major Atlantic colony, we reconstructed a long-term dietary time series from 1890 to the present day and show that a significant dietary shift occurred during the second half of the twentieth century coinciding with an apparent population collapse of approximately 84%. After correcting for the "Suess Effect," δ13 C in feathers declined by ~1.5‰ and δ15 N by ~2‰ between the 1890s and the present day, indicating that birds changed their diets markedly over the period of population decline. Isotopic niches were equally wide before and after the population collapse but isotopic mixing models suggest that birds have grown ever more reliant on nutrient-poor squid and invertebrates as teleost fish have declined in availability. Given that sooty terns rely heavily on associations with sub-surface predators such as tuna to catch fish prey, the rapid expansion of industrialized fisheries for these species over the same period seems a plausible mechanism. Our results suggest that changes to marine ecosystems over the past 60 years have had a dramatic impact on the ecology of the most abundant seabird of tropical oceans, and highlight the potentially pervasive consequences of large predatory fish depletion on marine ecosystem function.
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Affiliation(s)
- S James Reynolds
- Centre for Ornithology, School of Biosciences, College of Life & Environmental Sciences, The University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, UK
- The Army Ornithological Society (AOS), c/o Prince Consort Library, Aldershot, Hampshire, UK
| | - B John Hughes
- Centre for Ornithology, School of Biosciences, College of Life & Environmental Sciences, The University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, UK
- The Army Ornithological Society (AOS), c/o Prince Consort Library, Aldershot, Hampshire, UK
| | - Colin P Wearn
- The Royal Air Force Ornithological Society (RAFOS), High Wycombe, Buckinghamshire, UK
| | - Roger C Dickey
- The Army Ornithological Society (AOS), c/o Prince Consort Library, Aldershot, Hampshire, UK
| | - Judith Brown
- Ascension Island Government Conservation and Fisheries Department (AIGCFD), Georgetown, Ascension Island
| | - Nicola L Weber
- Ascension Island Government Conservation and Fisheries Department (AIGCFD), Georgetown, Ascension Island
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, Biosciences, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Penryn, Cornwall, UK
| | - Sam B Weber
- Ascension Island Government Conservation and Fisheries Department (AIGCFD), Georgetown, Ascension Island
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, Biosciences, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Penryn, Cornwall, UK
| | - Vitor H Paiva
- Department of Life Sciences, MARE, Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Jaime A Ramos
- Department of Life Sciences, MARE, Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
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6
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Morra KE, Chikaraishi Y, Gandhi H, James HF, Rossman S, Wiley AE, Raine AF, Beck J, Ostrom PH. Trophic declines and decadal-scale foraging segregation in three pelagic seabirds. Oecologia 2019; 189:395-406. [PMID: 30618004 DOI: 10.1007/s00442-018-04330-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2018] [Accepted: 12/20/2018] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
We investigated how foraging habits vary among three ecologically distinct wide-ranging seabirds. Using amino acid δ15N proxies for nutrient regime (δ15NPhe) and trophic position (Δδ15NGlu-Phe), we compared Newell's shearwater (Puffinus newelli) and Laysan albatross (Phoebastria immutabilis) foraging habits over the past 50-100 years, respectively, to published records for the Hawaiian petrel (Pterodroma sandwichensis). Standard ellipses constructed from the isotope proxies show that inter-population and interspecific foraging segregation have persisted for several decades. We found no evidence of a shift in nutrient regime at the base of the food web for the three species. However, our data identify a trophic decline during the past century for Newell's shearwater and Laysan albatross (probability ≥ 0.97), echoing a similar decline observed in the Hawaiian petrel. During this time, Newell's shearwaters and Hawaiian petrels have experienced population declines and Laysan albatross has experienced range extension and apparent population stability. Counting other recent studies, a pattern of trophic decline over the past century has now been identified in eight species of pelagic seabirds that breed in the Hawaiian Islands. Because our study species forage broadly across the North Pacific Ocean and differ in morphological and behavioral traits and feeding methods, the identified trophic declines suggest a pervasive shift in food web architecture within the past century.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaycee E Morra
- Department of Integrative Biology, Michigan State University, 203 Natural Science Building, 288 Farm Lane, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA.
| | - Yoshito Chikaraishi
- Institute of Low Temperature Science, Hokkaido University, Kita-19, Nishi-8, Kita-ku, Sapporo, 060-0819, Japan.,Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology, 2-15 Natsushima-cho, Yokosuka, 237-0061, Japan
| | - Hasand Gandhi
- Department of Integrative Biology, Michigan State University, 203 Natural Science Building, 288 Farm Lane, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA
| | - Helen F James
- Department of Vertebrate Zoology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, P.O. Box 37012, 10th Street and Constitution Avenue NW, Washington, D.C., 20560, USA
| | - Sam Rossman
- Department of Integrative Biology, Michigan State University, 203 Natural Science Building, 288 Farm Lane, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA.,Hubbs-SeaWorld Research Institute, 3830 S. Highway A1A #4-181, Melbourne Beach, FL, 32951, USA
| | - Anne E Wiley
- Department of Biology, University of Akron, 185 East Mill St, Akron, OH, 44325, USA
| | - Andre F Raine
- Kaua`i Endangered Seabird Recovery Project, Hanapepe, Kauai, Hawaii, 96716, USA
| | - Jessie Beck
- Oikonos Ecosystem Knowledge, P.O. Box 2570, Santa Cruz, CA, 95062, USA
| | - Peggy H Ostrom
- Department of Integrative Biology, Michigan State University, 203 Natural Science Building, 288 Farm Lane, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA
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English PA, Green DJ, Nocera JJ. Stable Isotopes from Museum Specimens May Provide Evidence of Long-Term Change in the Trophic Ecology of a Migratory Aerial Insectivore. Front Ecol Evol 2018. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2018.00014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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8
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Gagne TO, Hyrenbach KD, Hagemann ME, Van Houtan KS. Trophic signatures of seabirds suggest shifts in oceanic ecosystems. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2018; 4:eaao3946. [PMID: 29457134 PMCID: PMC5812733 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.aao3946] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2017] [Accepted: 01/12/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Pelagic ecosystems are dynamic ocean regions whose immense natural capital is affected by climate change, pollution, and commercial fisheries. Trophic level-based indicators derived from fishery catch data may reveal the food web status of these systems, but the utility of these metrics has been debated because of targeting bias in fisheries catch. We analyze a unique, fishery-independent data set of North Pacific seabird tissues to inform ecosystem trends over 13 decades (1890s to 2010s). Trophic position declined broadly in five of eight species sampled, indicating a long-term shift from higher-trophic level to lower-trophic level prey. No species increased their trophic position. Given species prey preferences, Bayesian diet reconstructions suggest a shift from fishes to squids, a result consistent with both catch reports and ecosystem models. Machine learning models further reveal that trophic position trends have a complex set of drivers including climate, commercial fisheries, and ecomorphology. Our results show that multiple species of fish-consuming seabirds may track the complex changes occurring in marine ecosystems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tyler O. Gagne
- Monterey Bay Aquarium, 886 Cannery Row, Monterey, CA 93940, USA
| | - K. David Hyrenbach
- Hawaii Pacific University, 45-045 Kamehameha Highway, Kaneohe, HI 96744, USA
| | - Molly E. Hagemann
- Vertebrate Zoology Collections, Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum, 1525 Bernice Street, Honolulu, HI 96817, USA
| | - Kyle S. Van Houtan
- Monterey Bay Aquarium, 886 Cannery Row, Monterey, CA 93940, USA
- Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, Box 90328, Durham, NC 27708, USA
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Watanabe J. Ontogeny of Surface Texture of Limb Bones in Modern Aquatic Birds and Applicability of Textural Ageing. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2018; 301:1026-1045. [PMID: 29195009 DOI: 10.1002/ar.23736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2017] [Revised: 06/07/2017] [Accepted: 06/19/2017] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Despite its importance in various disciplines, a general method to assess ontogenetic ages of skeletal and fossil specimens has been lacking for birds. Although the textural ageing method was formulated to assess relative ontogenetic ages of specimens from inspection of bone surface textures, the exact correspondence of surface textures to ontogenetic stages has not yet been clear. In this study, bone surface textures of six major limb bones (humerus, ulna, carpometacarpus, femur, tibiotarsus, and tarsometatarsus) were described in postnatal ontogenies of four species of modern birds (Calonectris leucomelas, Phalacrocorax capillatus, Larus crassirostris, and Cerorhinca monocerata) from 14 to 28 individuals of known ontogenetic stages for each species. Consistently with the previous postulation, it was found that bones of chicks were characterized by rough surface textures with numerous grooves/depressions that host minute foramina. Bones of fledglings/juveniles, which are generally as large as those of adults but more slender, were characterized by the occasional presence of depressions and foramina. Histological observations confirmed that these rough surface textures were underlain by fibrolamellar bone tissue which is associated with active periosteal ossification. These results indicate that the smooth surface texture in adults is formed after the cessation of circumferential bone growth, which probably takes place between fledging and the attainment of sexual maturity. The available evidence suggests that the textural ageing is probably applicable to the entire Neognathae, a clade containing most crown-group birds. Anat Rec, 301:1026-1045, 2018. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junya Watanabe
- Department of Geology and Mineralogy, Graduate School of Science, Kyoto University, Sakyoku Kitashirakawa Oiwakecho, Kyoto, 606-8502, Japan
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10
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Szpak P, Buckley M, Darwent CM, Richards MP. Long-term ecological changes in marine mammals driven by recent warming in northwestern Alaska. GLOBAL CHANGE BIOLOGY 2018; 24:490-503. [PMID: 28850766 DOI: 10.1111/gcb.13880] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2017] [Revised: 08/07/2017] [Accepted: 08/12/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Carbon and nitrogen isotopes analyses were performed on marine mammal bone collagen from three archaeological sites (ad 1170-1813) on Cape Espenberg (Kotzebue Sound, northwestern Alaska) as well as modern animals harvested from the same area to examine long-term trends in foraging ecology and sea ice productivity. We observed significant and dramatic changes in ringed seal stable isotope values between the early 19th and early 21st centuries, likely due to changing sea ice productivity and reduced delivery of organic matter to the benthos driven by recent warming in the Arctic. These data highlight the importance of the archaeological record for providing a long-term perspective on environmental variation and interpreting recent changes driven by anthropogenic processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Szpak
- Department of Anthropology, Trent University, Peterborough, ON, Canada
| | - Michael Buckley
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
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Ostrom PH, Wiley AE, James HF, Rossman S, Walker WA, Zipkin EF, Chikaraishi Y. Broad-scale trophic shift in the pelagic North Pacific revealed by an oceanic seabird. Proc Biol Sci 2017; 284:rspb.2016.2436. [PMID: 28356448 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2016.2436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2016] [Accepted: 03/03/2017] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Human-induced ecological change in the open oceans appears to be accelerating. Fisheries, climate change and elevated nutrient inputs are variously blamed, at least in part, for altering oceanic ecosystems. Yet it is challenging to assess the extent of anthropogenic change in the open oceans, where historical records of ecological conditions are sparse, and the geographical scale is immense. We developed millennial-scale amino acid nitrogen isotope records preserved in ancient animal remains to understand changes in food web structure and nutrient regimes in the oceanic realm of the North Pacific Ocean (NPO). Our millennial-scale isotope records of amino acids in bone collagen in a wide-ranging oceanic seabird, the Hawaiian petrel (Pterodroma sandwichensis), showed that trophic level declined over time. The amino acid records do not support a broad-scale increase in nitrogen fixation in the North Pacific subtropical gyre, rejecting an earlier interpretation based on bulk and amino acid specific δ15N chronologies for Hawaiian deep-sea corals and bulk δ15N chronologies for the Hawaiian petrel. Rather, our work suggests that the food web structure in the NPO has shifted at a broad geographical scale, a phenomenon potentially related to industrial fishing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peggy H Ostrom
- Department of Integrative Biology and Ecology Evolutionary Biology and Behavior Program, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
| | - Anne E Wiley
- Department of Biology, University of Akron, Akron, OH 44325, USA
| | - Helen F James
- Department of Vertebrate Zoology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington DC 20013, USA
| | - Sam Rossman
- Department of Integrative Biology and Ecology Evolutionary Biology and Behavior Program, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA.,Hubbs-Sea World Research Institute, 3830 S. Highway A1A no. 4-181, Melbourne Beach, FL 32951, USA
| | - William A Walker
- Marine Mammal Laboratory, Alaska Fisheries Science Center, NOAA, Seattle, WA 98115, USA
| | - Elise F Zipkin
- Department of Integrative Biology and Ecology Evolutionary Biology and Behavior Program, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
| | - Yoshito Chikaraishi
- Department of Biogeochemistry, Japan Agency for Marine Science & Technology, Yokosuka 237-0061, Japan.,Institute of Low Temperature Science, Hokkaido University, Kita-19, Nishi-8, Kita-ku, Sapporo 060-0819, Japan
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