Recent X-ray diffraction studies of muscle contraction and their implications

Differences in thick filament activation in fast rodent skeletal muscle and slow porcine cardiac muscle

There is a growing appreciation that regulation of muscle contraction requires both thin filament and thick filament activation in order to fully activate the sarcomere. The prevailing mechano-sensing model for thick filament activation was derived from experiments on fast-twitch muscle. We address the question whether, or to what extent, this mechanism can be extrapolated to the slow muscle in the hearts of large mammals, including humans. We investigated the similarities and differences in structural signatures of thick filament activation in porcine myocardium as compared to fast rat extensor digitorum longus (EDL) skeletal muscle under relaxed conditions and sub-maximal contraction using small angle X-ray diffraction. Thick and thin filaments were found to adopt different structural configurations under relaxing conditions, and myosin heads showed different changes in configuration upon sub-maximal activation, when comparing the two muscle types. Titin was found to have an X-ray diffraction signature distinct from those of the overall thick filament backbone, and its spacing change appeared to be positively correlated to the force exerted on the thick filament. Structural changes in fast EDL muscle were found to be consistent with the mechano-sensing model. In porcine myocardium, however, the structural basis of mechano-sensing is blunted suggesting the need for additional activation mechanism(s) in slow cardiac muscle. These differences in thick filament regulation can be related to their different physiological roles where fast muscle is optimized for rapid, burst-like, contractions, and the slow cardiac muscle in large mammalian hearts adopts a more finely tuned, graded response to allow for their substantial functional reserve. KEY POINTS: Both thin filament and thick filament activation are required to fully activate the sarcomere. Thick and thin filaments adopt different structural configurations under relaxing conditions, and myosin heads show different changes in configuration upon sub-maximal activation in fast extensor digitorum longus muscle and slow porcine cardiac muscle. Titin has an X-ray diffraction signature distinct from those of the overall thick filament backbone and this titin reflection spacing change appeared to be directly proportional to the force exerted on the thick filament. Mechano-sensing is blunted in porcine myocardium suggesting the need for additional activation mechanism(s) in slow cardiac muscle. Fast skeletal muscle is optimized for rapid, burst-like contractions, and the slow cardiac muscle in large mammalian hearts adopts a more finely tuned graded response to allow for their substantial functional reserve.

The structural and functional integrities of porcine myocardium are mostly preserved by cryopreservation

Structural and functional studies of heart muscle are important to gain insights into the physiological bases of cardiac muscle contraction and the pathological bases of heart disease. While fresh muscle tissue works best for these kinds of studies, this is not always practical to obtain, especially for heart tissue from large animal models and humans. Conversely, tissue banks of frozen human hearts are available and could be a tremendous resource for translational research. It is not well understood, however, how liquid nitrogen freezing and cryostorage may impact the structural integrity of myocardium from large mammals. In this study, we directly compared the structural and functional integrity of never-frozen to previously frozen porcine myocardium to investigate the consequences of freezing and cryostorage. X-ray diffraction measurements from hydrated tissue under near-physiological conditions and electron microscope images from chemically fixed porcine myocardium showed that prior freezing has only minor effects on structural integrity of the muscle. Furthermore, mechanical studies similarly showed no significant differences in contractile capabilities of porcine myocardium with and without freezing and cryostorage. These results demonstrate that liquid nitrogen preservation is a practical approach for structural and functional studies of myocardium.

Thick filament activation is different in fast- and slow-twitch skeletal muscle

The contractile properties of fast-twitch and slow-twitch skeletal muscles are primarily determined by the myosin isoform content and modulated by a variety of sarcomere proteins. X-ray diffraction studies of regulatory mechanisms in muscle contraction have focused predominately on fast- or mixed-fibre muscle with slow muscle being much less studied. Here, we used time-resolved X-ray diffraction to investigate the dynamic behaviour of the myofilament proteins in relatively pure slow-twitch-fibre rat soleus (SOL) and pure fast-twitch-fibre rat extensor digitorum longus (EDL) muscle during twitch and tetanic contractions at optimal length. During twitch contractions the diffraction signatures indicating a transition in the myosin heads from ordered OFF states, where heads are held close to the thick filament backbone, to disordered ON states, where heads are free to bind to thin filaments, were found in EDL and not in SOL muscle. During tetanic contraction, changes in the disposition of myosin heads as active tension develops is a quasi-stepwise process in EDL muscle whereas in SOL muscle this relationship appears to be linear. The observed reduced extensibility of the thick filaments in SOL muscle as compared to EDL muscles indicates a molecular basis for this behaviour. These data indicate that for the EDL, thick filament activation is a cooperative strain-induced mechano-sensing mechanism, whereas for the SOL, thick filament activation has a more graded response. These different approaches to thick filament regulation in fast- and slow-twitch muscles may be adaptations for short-duration, strong contractions versus sustained, finely controlled contractions, respectively. KEY POINTS: Fast-twitch muscle and slow-twitch muscle are optimized for strong, short-duration contractions and for tonic postural activity, respectively. Structural events (OFF to ON transitions) in the myosin-containing thick filaments in fast muscle help determine the timing and strength of contractions, but these have not been studied in slow-twitch muscle. The X-ray diffraction signatures of structural OFF to ON transitions are different in fast extensor digitorum longus (EDL) and slow soleus (SOL) muscle, being completely absent during twitches in soleus muscle and blunted during tetanic contractions SOL as compared to EDL Quasi-stepwise thick filament structural OFF to ON transitions in fast twitch muscle may be an adaptation for rapid, ballistic movements, whereas more graded OFF to ON structural transitions in slow-twitch muscle may be an adaptation for slower, finer motions.

Small Angle X-ray Diffraction as a Tool for Structural Characterization of Muscle Disease

Small angle X-ray fiber diffraction is the method of choice for obtaining molecular level structural information from striated muscle fibers under hydrated physiological conditions. For many decades this technique had been used primarily for investigating basic biophysical questions regarding muscle contraction and regulation and its use confined to a relatively small group of expert practitioners. Over the last 20 years, however, X-ray diffraction has emerged as an important tool for investigating the structural consequences of cardiac and skeletal myopathies. In this review we show how simple and straightforward measurements, accessible to non-experts, can be used to extract biophysical parameters that can help explain and characterize the physiology and pathology of a given experimental system. We provide a comprehensive guide to the range of the kinds of measurements that can be made and illustrate how they have been used to provide insights into the structural basis of pathology in a comprehensive review of the literature. We also show how these kinds of measurements can inform current controversies and indicate some future directions.

The Super-Relaxed State and Length Dependent Activation in Porcine Myocardium

[Figure: see text].

Myosin Head Configurations in Resting and Contracting Murine Skeletal Muscle

Transgenic mouse models have been important tools for studying the relationship of genotype to phenotype for human diseases, including those of skeletal muscle. We show that mouse skeletal muscle can produce high quality X-ray diffraction patterns establishing the mouse intact skeletal muscle X-ray preparation as a potentially powerful tool to test structural hypotheses in health and disease. A notable feature of the mouse model system is the presence of residual myosin layer line intensities in contracting mouse muscle patterns. This provides an additional tool, along with the I1,1/I1,0 intensity ratio, for estimating the proportions of active versus relaxed myosin heads under a given set of conditions that can be used to characterize a given physiological condition or mutant muscle type. We also show that analysis of the myosin layer line intensity distribution, including derivation of the myosin head radius, Rm, may be used to study the role of the super-relaxed state in myosin regulation. When the myosin inhibitor blebbistatin is used to inhibit force production, there is a shift towards a highly quasi-helically ordered configuration that is distinct from the normal resting state, indicating there are more than one helically ordered configuration for resting crossbridges.

Thick-Filament Extensibility in Intact Skeletal Muscle

Myofilament extensibility is a key structural parameter for interpreting myosin cross-bridge kinetics in striated muscle. Previous studies reported much higher thick-filament extensibility at low tension than the better-known and commonly used values at high tension, but in interpreting mechanical studies of muscle, a single value for thick-filament extensibility has usually been assumed. Here, we established the complete thick-filament force-extension curve from actively contracting, intact vertebrate skeletal muscle. To access a wide range of tetanic forces, the myosin inhibitor blebbistatin was used to induce low tetanic forces in addition to the higher tensions obtained from tetanic contractions of the untreated muscle. We show that the force/extensibility curve of the thick filament is nonlinear, so assuming a single value for thick-filament extensibility at all force levels is not justified. We also show that independent of whether tension is generated passively by sarcomere stretch or actively by cross-bridges, the thick-filament extensibility is nonlinear. Myosin head periodicity, however, only changes when active tension is generated under calcium-activated conditions. The nonlinear thick-filament force-extension curve in skeletal muscle, therefore, reflects a purely passive response to either titin-based force or actomyosin-based force, and it does not include a thick-filament activation mechanism. In contrast, the transition of myosin head periodicity to an active configuration appears to only occur in response to increased active force when calcium is present.

Synchrotron Radiation X-ray Diffraction Techniques Applied to Insect Flight Muscle

X-ray fiber diffraction is a powerful tool used for investigating the molecular structure of muscle and its dynamics during contraction. This technique has been successfully applied not only to skeletal and cardiac muscles of vertebrates but also to insect flight muscle. Generally, insect flight muscle has a highly ordered structure and is often capable of high-frequency oscillations. The X-ray diffraction studies on muscle have been accelerated by the advent of 3rd-generation synchrotron radiation facilities, which can generate brilliant and highly oriented X-ray beams. This review focuses on some of the novel experiments done on insect flight muscle by using synchrotron radiation X-rays. These include diffraction recordings from single myofibrils within a flight muscle fiber by using X-ray microbeams and high-speed diffraction recordings from the flight muscle during the wing-beat of live insects. These experiments have provided information about the molecular structure and dynamic function of flight muscle in unprecedented detail. Future directions of X-ray diffraction studies on muscle are also discussed.

Kinetic coupling of phosphate release, force generation and rate-limiting steps in the cross-bridge cycle

A basic goal in muscle research is to understand how the cyclic ATPase activity of cross-bridges is converted into mechanical force. A direct approach to study the chemo-mechanical coupling between P_i release and the force-generating step is provided by the kinetics of force response induced by a rapid change in [P_i]. Classical studies on fibres using caged-P_i discovered that rapid increases in [P_i] induce fast force decays dependent on final [P_i] whose kinetics were interpreted to probe a fast force-generating step prior to P_i release. However, this hypothesis was called into question by studies on skeletal and cardiac myofibrils subjected to P_i jumps in both directions (increases and decreases in [P_i]) which revealed that rapid decreases in [P_i] trigger force rises with slow kinetics, similar to those of calcium-induced force development and mechanically-induced force redevelopment at the same [P_i]. A possible explanation for this discrepancy came from imaging of individual sarcomeres in cardiac myofibrils, showing that the fast force decay upon increase in [P_i] results from so-called sarcomere 'give'. The slow force rise upon decrease in [P_i] was found to better reflect overall sarcomeres cross-bridge kinetics and its [P_i] dependence, suggesting that the force generation coupled to P_i release cannot be separated from the rate-limiting transition. The reasons for the different conclusions achieved in fibre and myofibril studies are re-examined as the recent findings on cardiac myofibrils have fundamental consequences for the coupling between P_i release, rate-limiting steps and force generation. The implications from P_i-induced force kinetics of myofibrils are discussed in combination with historical and recent models of the cross-bridge cycle.

Lessons from a tarantula: new insights into muscle thick filament and myosin interacting-heads motif structure and function

The tarantula skeletal muscle X-ray diffraction pattern suggested that the myosin heads were helically arranged on the thick filaments. Electron microscopy (EM) of negatively stained relaxed tarantula thick filaments revealed four helices of heads allowing a helical 3D reconstruction. Due to its low resolution (5.0 nm), the unambiguous interpretation of densities of both heads was not possible. A resolution increase up to 2.5 nm, achieved by cryo-EM of frozen-hydrated relaxed thick filaments and an iterative helical real space reconstruction, allowed the resolving of both heads. The two heads, "free" and "blocked", formed an asymmetric structure named the "interacting-heads motif" (IHM) which explained relaxation by self-inhibition of both heads ATPases. This finding made tarantula an exemplar system for thick filament structure and function studies. Heads were shown to be released and disordered by Ca²⁺-activation through myosin regulatory light chain phosphorylation, leading to EM, small angle X-ray diffraction and scattering, and spectroscopic and biochemical studies of the IHM structure and function. The results from these studies have consequent implications for understanding and explaining myosin super-relaxed state and thick filament activation and regulation. A cooperative phosphorylation mechanism for activation in tarantula skeletal muscle, involving swaying constitutively Ser35 mono-phosphorylated free heads, explains super-relaxation, force potentiation and post-tetanic potentiation through Ser45 mono-phosphorylated blocked heads. Based on this mechanism, we propose a swaying-swinging, tilting crossbridge-sliding filament for tarantula muscle contraction.

From Tusko to Titin: the role for comparative physiology in an era of molecular discovery

As we approach the centenary of the term “comparative physiology,” we reexamine its role in modern biology. Finding inspiration in Krogh's classic 1929 paper, we first look back to some timeless contributions to the field. The obvious and fascinating variation among animals is much more evident than is their shared physiological unity, which transcends both body size and specific adaptations. The “unity in diversity” reveals general patterns and principles of physiology that are invisible when examining only one species. Next, we examine selected contemporary contributions to comparative physiology, which provides the context in which reductionist experiments are best interpreted. We discuss the sometimes surprising insights provided by two comparative “athletes” (pronghorn and rattlesnakes), which demonstrate 1) animals are not isolated molecular mechanisms but highly integrated physiological machines, a single “rate-limiting” step may be exceptional; and 2) extremes in nature are rarely the result of novel mechanisms, but rather employ existing solutions in novel ways. Furthermore, rattlesnake tailshaker muscle effectively abolished the conventional view of incompatibility of simultaneous sustained anaerobic glycolysis and oxidative ATP production. We end this review by looking forward, much as Krogh did, to suggest that a comparative approach may best lend insights in unraveling how skeletal muscle stores and recovers mechanical energy when operating cyclically. We discuss and speculate on the role of the largest known protein, titin (the third muscle filament), as a dynamic spring capable of storing and recovering elastic recoil potential energy in skeletal muscle.

Poorly understood aspects of striated muscle contraction

Muscle contraction results from cyclic interactions between the contractile proteins myosin and actin, driven by the turnover of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Despite intense studies, several molecular events in the contraction process are poorly understood, including the relationship between force-generation and phosphate-release in the ATP-turnover. Different aspects of the force-generating transition are reflected in the changes in tension development by muscle cells, myofibrils and single molecules upon changes in temperature, altered phosphate concentration, or length perturbations. It has been notoriously difficult to explain all these events within a given theoretical framework and to unequivocally correlate observed events with the atomic structures of the myosin motor. Other incompletely understood issues include the role of the two heads of myosin II and structural changes in the actin filaments as well as the importance of the three-dimensional order. We here review these issues in relation to controversies regarding basic physiological properties of striated muscle. We also briefly consider actomyosin mutation effects in cardiac and skeletal muscle function and the possibility to treat these defects by drugs.

The path to visualization of walking myosin V by high-speed atomic force microscopy

The quest for understanding the mechanism of myosin-based motility started with studies on muscle contraction. From numerous studies, the basic frameworks for this mechanism were constructed and brilliant hypotheses were put forward. However, the argument about the most crucial issue of how the actin-myosin interaction generates contractile force and shortening has not been definitive. To increase the "directness of measurement", in vitro motility assays and single-molecule optical techniques were created and used. Consequently, detailed knowledge of the motility of muscle myosin evolved, which resulted in provoking more arguments to a higher level. In parallel with technical progress, advances in cell biology led to the discovery of many classes of myosins. Myosin V was discovered to be a processive motor, unlike myosin II. The processivity reduced experimental difficulties because it allowed continuous tracing of the motor action of single myosin V molecules. Extensive studies of myosin V were expected to resolve arguments and build a consensus but did not necessarily do so. The directness of measurement was further enhanced by the recent advent of high-speed atomic force microscopy capable of directly visualizing biological molecules in action at high spatiotemporal resolution. This microscopy clearly visualized myosin V molecules walking on actin filaments and at last provided irrefutable evidence for the swinging lever-arm motion propelling the molecules. However, a peculiar foot stomp behavior also appeared in the AFM movie, raising new questions of the chemo-mechanical coupling in this motor and myosin motors in general. This article reviews these changes in the research of myosin motility and proposes new ideas to resolve the newly raised questions.

Behind the movement

This year, the Albert Lasker Basic Medical Research Award will be shared by Michael Sheetz, James Spudich, and Ronald Vale for discoveries concerning the biophysical actions of cytoskeletal motor-protein machines that move cargo within cells, contract muscles, and enable cell motility.

Thick-filament strain and interfilament spacing in passive muscle: effect of titin-based passive tension

We studied the effect of titin-based passive tension on sarcomere structure by simultaneously measuring passive tension and low-angle x-ray diffraction patterns on passive fiber bundles from rabbit skinned psoas muscle. We used a stretch-hold-release protocol with measurement of x-ray diffraction patterns at various passive tension levels during the hold phase before and after passive stress relaxation. Measurements were performed in relaxing solution without and with dextran T-500 to compress the lattice toward physiological levels. The myofilament lattice spacing was measured in the A-band (d(1,0)) and Z-disk (d(Z)) regions of the sarcomere. The axial spacing of the thick-filament backbone was determined from the sixth myosin meridional reflection (M6) and the equilibrium positions of myosin heads from the fourth myosin layer line peak position and the I(1,1)/I(1,0) intensity ratio. Total passive tension was measured during the x-ray experiments, and a differential extraction technique was used to determine the relations between collagen- and titin-based passive tension and sarcomere length. Within the employed range of sarcomere lengths (∼2.2-3.4 μm), titin accounted for >80% of passive tension. X-ray results indicate that titin compresses both the A-band and Z-disk lattice spacing with viscoelastic behavior when fibers are swollen after skinning, and elastic behavior when the lattice is reduced with dextran. Titin also increases the axial thick-filament spacing, M6, in an elastic manner in both the presence and absence of dextran. No changes were detected in either I(1,1)/I(1,0) or the position of peaks on the fourth myosin layer line during passive stress relaxation. Passive tension and M6 measurements were converted to thick-filament compliance, yielding a value of ∼85 m/N, which is several-fold larger than the thick-filament compliance determined by others during the tetanic tension plateau of activated intact muscle. This difference can be explained by the fact that thick filaments are more compliant at low tension (passive muscle) than at high tension (tetanic tension). The implications of our findings are discussed.

Geometrical conditions indispensable for muscle contraction

Computer simulation has uncovered the geometrical conditions under which the vertebrate striated muscle sarcomere can contract. First, all thick filaments should have identical structure, namely: three myosin cross-bridges, building a crown, should be aligned at angles of 0°, 120°, 180°, and the successive crowns and the two filament halves should be turned around 120°. Second, all thick filaments should act simultaneously. Third, coordination in action of the myosin cross-bridges should exist, namely: the three cross-bridges of a crown should act simultaneously and the cross-bridge crowns axially 43 and 14.333 nm apart should act, respectively, simultaneously and with a phase shift. Fifth, six thin filaments surrounding the thick filament should be turned around 180° to each other in each sarcomere half. Sixth, thin filaments should be oppositely oriented in relation to the sarcomere middle. Finally, the structure of each of the thin filaments should change in consequence of strong interaction with myosin heads, namely: the axial distance and the angular alignment between neighboring actin monomers should be, respectively, 2.867 nm and 168° instead of 2.75 nm and 166.15°. These conditions ensure the stereo-specific interaction between actin and myosin and good agreement with the data gathered by electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction methods. The results suggest that the force is generated not only by the myosin cross-bridges but also by the thin filaments; the former acts by cyclical unwrapping and wrapping the thick filament backbone, and the latter byelongation.

Mechanics of the power stroke in myosin II

Power stroke in skeletal muscles is a result of a conformational change in the globular portion of the molecular motor myosin II. In this paper we show that the fast tension recovery data reflecting the inner working of the power stroke mechanism can be quantitatively reproduced by a Langevin dynamics of a simple mechanical system with only two structural states. The proposed model is a generalization of the two state model of Huxley and Simmons. The main idea is to replace the rigid bistable device of Huxley and Simmons with an elastic bistable snap spring. In this setting the attached configuration of a cross bridge is represented not only by the discrete energy minima but also by a continuum of intermediate states where the fluctuation induced dynamics of the system takes place. We show that such soft-spin approach explains the load dependence of the power stroke amplitude and removes the well-known contradiction inside the conventional two state model regarding the time scale of the power stroke.

X-ray Interference Studies of Crossbridge Action in Muscle Contraction: Evidence from Muscles During Steady Shortening

During normal muscle shortening, the myosin heads must undergo many cycles of interaction with the actin filaments sliding past them. It is important to determine what range of configurations is found under these circumstances, and, in terms of the tilting lever arm model, what range of orientations the lever arms undergo. We have studied this using the X-ray interference technique described in the previous article, focusing mainly on the changes in the first order meridional reflection (M3) as compared to isometric. The change in ratio of the heights of the interference peaks indicates how far the mean lever arm angle has moved towards the end of the working stroke; the total intensity change depends on the angle change, on the number of heads now attached at any one time, and on the dispersion of lever arm angles. The latter provides a measure of the distance over which myosin heads remain attached to actin as they go through their working strokes. Surprisingly, the mean position of the attached heads moves only about 1 nm inwards (towards the center of the A-band) at low velocity shortening (around 0.9 T0): their dispersion changes very little. This shows that they must be detaching very early in the working stroke. However, at loads around 0.5 T0, the mean lever arm angle is about half way towards the end of the working stroke, and the dispersion of lever arm angles (with a uniform dispersion) is such as to distribute the heads throughout the whole of the working stroke. At higher velocities of shortening (at 0.3 T0), the mean position shifts further towards the end of the stroke, and the dispersion increases further. The details of the measurements, together with other data on muscle indicate that the force-generating mechanism within the myosin heads must have some unexpected properties.

Introduction

Introduction