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Occhibove F, McKeown NJ, Risley C, Ironside JE. Eco-epidemiological screening of multi-host wild rodent communities in the UK reveals pathogen strains of zoonotic interest. Int J Parasitol Parasites Wildl 2022; 17:278-287. [PMID: 35309039 PMCID: PMC8927908 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijppaw.2022.02.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2021] [Revised: 02/22/2022] [Accepted: 02/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Wild rodent communities represent ideal systems to study pathogens and parasites shared among sympatric species. Such studies are useful in the investigation of eco-epidemiological dynamics, improving disease management strategies and reducing zoonotic risk. The aim of this study was to investigate pathogen and parasites shared among rodent species (multi-host community) in West Wales in an area where human/wildlife disease risk was not previously assessed. West Wales is predominantly rural, with human settlements located alongside to grazing areas and semi-natural landscapes, creating a critical human-livestock-wildlife interface. Ground-dwelling wild rodent communities in Wales were live-trapped and biological samples - faeces and ectoparasites - collected and screened for a suite of pathogens and parasites that differ in types of transmission and ecology. Faecal samples were examined to detect Herpesvirus, Escherichia coli, and Mycobacterium microti. Ticks and fleas were collected, identified to species based on morphology and genetic barcodes, and then screened for Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Babesia microti, Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato, and Bartonella sp. All the pathogens and parasites screened pose a characteristic epidemiological challenge, such as variable level of generalism, unknown zoonotic potential, and lack of data. The results showed that the bank vole Myodes glareolus had the highest prevalence of all pathogens and parasites. Higher flea species diversity was detected than in previous studies, and at least two Bartonella species were found circulating, one of which has not previously been detected in the UK. These key findings offer new insights into the distribution of selected pathogen and parasites and subsequent zoonotic risk, and provide new baselines and perspectives for further eco-epidemiological research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Flavia Occhibove
- IBERS, Aberystwyth University, Aberystwyth, SY23 3DA, UK
- UK Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, Wallingford, Oxfordshire, OX10 8BB, UK
| | | | - Claire Risley
- IBERS, Aberystwyth University, Aberystwyth, SY23 3DA, UK
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2
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Morandi B, Bazzucchi A, Gambini S, Crotti S, Cruciani D, Morandi F, Napoleoni M, Piseddu T, Di Donato A, Gavaudan S. A novel intermediate host for Taenia serialis (Gervais, 1847): The European roe deer (Capreolus capreolus L. 1758) from the Monti Sibillini National Park (MSNP), Italy. Int J Parasitol Parasites Wildl 2022; 17:110-113. [PMID: 35024334 PMCID: PMC8733149 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijppaw.2021.12.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2021] [Revised: 12/27/2021] [Accepted: 12/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Taeniids are multi-host parasites with an indirect life cycle that strictly depends on a predator-prey relationship. Parasites with a complex life cycle may exhibit different degrees of host-specificity at each life stage. Knowing the host breadth is a fundamental concept of the biology and epidemiology of these multi-host parasites. Morphological identification of tapeworms is challenging and occasionally may produce misdiagnosis. Thus, molecular investigations were carried out for the identification of parasitic cysts detected from muscle tissues in a male roe deer necropsied at the Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell’Umbria e delle Marche “Togo Rosati” (Central Italy). Sanger sequencing showed 99% query cover, 2e-109 e-value, and 100% identity with Taenia serialis. The exact definitive host was not revealed in this report, but red foxes and Italian wolves may play a significant role as being widespread within the area. Wildlife surveillance is crucial to monitor for human and animal health since global distribution and flexibility in intermediate hosts of many and even more critical taeniids species may enlarge their host range. A new intermediate host for a not commonly detected tapeworm was documented. A new ecological niche might be hypothesized. Molecular investigation is crucial for the diagnosis of tapeworms to avoid misdiagnosis. To perform necropsy on wildlife is essential for the local and global understanding of free-living animal populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benedetto Morandi
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale Dell’Umbria e Delle Marche “Togo Rosati”, Via G.Salvemini, 1, 06126, Perugia, Italy
- Corresponding author.
| | - Alessandra Bazzucchi
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale Dell’Umbria e Delle Marche “Togo Rosati”, Via G.Salvemini, 1, 06126, Perugia, Italy
| | - Sofia Gambini
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale Dell’Umbria e Delle Marche “Togo Rosati”, Via G.Salvemini, 1, 06126, Perugia, Italy
| | - Silvia Crotti
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale Dell’Umbria e Delle Marche “Togo Rosati”, Via G.Salvemini, 1, 06126, Perugia, Italy
| | - Deborah Cruciani
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale Dell’Umbria e Delle Marche “Togo Rosati”, Via G.Salvemini, 1, 06126, Perugia, Italy
| | - Federico Morandi
- Monti Sibillini National Park, P.zza Del Forno 1, 62039, Visso, Italy
| | - Maira Napoleoni
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale Dell’Umbria e Delle Marche “Togo Rosati”, Via G.Salvemini, 1, 06126, Perugia, Italy
| | - Toni Piseddu
- OIE Reference Laboratory for Echinococcosis, National Reference Laboratory for Cystic Echinococcosis (CeNRE), Istituto Zooprofilattico Della Sardegna (IZS), Via Vienna 2, Sassari, 07100, Italy
| | - Alessandra Di Donato
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale Dell’Umbria e Delle Marche “Togo Rosati”, Via G.Salvemini, 1, 06126, Perugia, Italy
| | - Stefano Gavaudan
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale Dell’Umbria e Delle Marche “Togo Rosati”, Via G.Salvemini, 1, 06126, Perugia, Italy
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3
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Farrell MJ, Park AW, Cressler CE, Dallas T, Huang S, Mideo N, Morales-Castilla I, Davies TJ, Stephens P. The ghost of hosts past: impacts of host extinction on parasite specificity. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2021; 376:20200351. [PMID: 34538147 PMCID: PMC8450631 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2020.0351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
A growing body of research is focused on the extinction of parasite species in response to host endangerment and declines. Beyond the loss of parasite species richness, host extinction can impact apparent parasite host specificity, as measured by host richness or the phylogenetic distances among hosts. Such impacts on the distribution of parasites across the host phylogeny can have knock-on effects that may reshape the adaptation of both hosts and parasites, ultimately shifting the evolutionary landscape underlying the potential for emergence and the evolution of virulence across hosts. Here, we examine how the reshaping of host phylogenies through extinction may impact the host specificity of parasites, and offer examples from historical extinctions, present-day endangerment, and future projections of biodiversity loss. We suggest that an improved understanding of the impact of host extinction on contemporary host-parasite interactions may shed light on core aspects of disease ecology, including comparative studies of host specificity, virulence evolution in multi-host parasite systems, and future trajectories for host and parasite biodiversity. This article is part of the theme issue 'Infectious disease macroecology: parasite diversity and dynamics across the globe'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maxwell J. Farrell
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | | | - Clayton E. Cressler
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68588, USA
| | - Tad Dallas
- Department of Biological Sciences, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70806, USA
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, 29208, USA
| | - Shan Huang
- Senckenberg Biodiversity and Climate Research Centre (SBiK-F), Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Nicole Mideo
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Ignacio Morales-Castilla
- Universidad de Alcalá, GloCEE - Global Change Ecology and Evolution Research Group, Departamento de Ciencias de la Vida, 28805 Alcalá de Henares, Madrid, Spain
| | - T. Jonathan Davies
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada, V6T 1Z4
- Department of Forest and Conservation Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada, V6T 1Z4
- Department of Botany and Plant Biotechnology, African Centre for DNA Barcoding, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg 2092, South Africa
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Wolcott KA, Margos G, Fingerle V, Becker NS. Host association of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato: A review. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2021; 12:101766. [PMID: 34161868 DOI: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2021.101766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2020] [Revised: 05/11/2021] [Accepted: 05/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato (Bbsl) is a bacterial species complex that includes the etiological agents of the most frequently reported vector-borne disease in the Northern hemisphere, Lyme borreliosis. It currently comprises > 20 named and proposed genospecies that use vertebrate hosts and tick vectors for transmission in the Americas and Eurasia. Host (and vector) associations influence geographic distribution and speciation in Bbsl, which is of particular relevance to human health. To target gaps in knowledge for future efforts to understand broad patterns of the Bbsl-tick-host system and how they relate to human health, the present review aims to give a comprehensive summary of the literature on host association in Bbsl. Of 465 papers consulted (404 after exclusion criteria were applied), 96 sought to experimentally establish reservoir competence of 143 vertebrate host species for Bbsl. We recognize xenodiagnosis as the strongest method used, however it is infrequent (20% of studies) probably due to difficulties in maintaining tick vectors and/or wild host species in the lab. Some well-established associations were not experimentally confirmed according to our definition (ex: Borrelia garinii, Ixodes uriae and sea birds). We conclude that our current knowledge on host association in Bbsl is mostly derived from a subset of host, vector and bacterial species involved, providing an incomplete knowledge of the physiology, ecology and evolutionary history of these interactions. More studies are needed on all host, vector and bacterial species globally involved with a focus on non-rodent hosts and Asian Bbsl complex species, especially with experimental research that uses xenodiagnosis and genomics to analyze existing host associations in different ecosystems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine A Wolcott
- Division of Evolutionary Biology, Faculty of Biology, LMU Munich, Grosshaderner Strasse 2, 82152 Planegg-Martinsried, Germany; National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, 20560, USA
| | - Gabriele Margos
- National Reference Centre for Borrelia at the Bavarian Health and Food Safety Authority, Veterinärstr. 2, 85764, Oberschleissheim, Germany
| | - Volker Fingerle
- National Reference Centre for Borrelia at the Bavarian Health and Food Safety Authority, Veterinärstr. 2, 85764, Oberschleissheim, Germany
| | - Noémie S Becker
- Division of Evolutionary Biology, Faculty of Biology, LMU Munich, Grosshaderner Strasse 2, 82152 Planegg-Martinsried, Germany.
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Villalobos-Segura MDC, García-Prieto L, Rico-Chávez O. Effects of latitude, host body size, and host trophic guild on patterns of diversity of helminths associated with humans, wild and domestic mammals of Mexico. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR PARASITOLOGY-PARASITES AND WILDLIFE 2020; 13:221-230. [PMID: 33224727 PMCID: PMC7666364 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijppaw.2020.10.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2020] [Revised: 10/28/2020] [Accepted: 10/29/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Parasites are strictly associated with their hosts and present a great diversity of life histories, often resulting in different diversity patterns than those observed in free-living species. However, ecological approaches have detected that, in some cases, mammal-associated helminths respond similarly to non-parasitic species in terms of diversity patterns. Using 2200 recorded interactions, we analysed the diversity patterns of helminths (Acanthocephala, Nematoda and Platyhelminthes) harbored by humans, wild and domestic mammals of Mexico, depending on latitude, host body mass and trophic guild (carnivore, herbivore, insectivore, omnivore), considering helminth richness and average taxonomic distinctness, and host phylogenetic diversity and phylogenetic clustering. Latitude was positively correlated with the average taxonomic distinctness encompassing the three parasite phyla and nematodes. Northern latitudes had less taxonomically related parasite assemblages. Host body mass had a significant negative relationship with the average taxonomic distinctness of acanthocephalans and the richness of helminths associated to wild hosts. The omnivore hosts had greater parasite richness, while insectivores had a less taxonomically related parasite assemblage and herbivores had a more heterogeneous parasite assemblage. Our results highlight the importance of incorporating different dimensions of diversity, such as average taxonomic distinctness and to consider the composition of parasite assemblages to better understand their diversity patterns. Four diversity measures were used to describe diversity patterns of helminths. Latitude was positively correlated with helminth average taxonomic distinctness. Host body mass was negatively related with the helminth richness of wildlife hosts. Helminth sets of omnivore hosts were richer in parasite species. Helminth sets of insectivore hosts had a wider taxonomic breadth.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Del Carmen Villalobos-Segura
- Laboratorio de Ecología de Enfermedades y Una Salud, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 04510, México City, Mexico
| | - Luis García-Prieto
- Laboratorio de Helmintología, Instituto de Biología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Apartado Postal 70-153, 04510, México City, Mexico
| | - Oscar Rico-Chávez
- Laboratorio de Ecología de Enfermedades y Una Salud, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 04510, México City, Mexico
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6
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Vasconcelos HCG, Sá-Oliveira JC, Salomão DDCO, Tavares-Dias M. Crustacean parasites of Leporinus affinis, an Anostomidae fish from the Brazilian Amazon. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2020; 29:e001820. [PMID: 32609240 DOI: 10.1590/s1984-29612020040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2020] [Accepted: 05/04/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
This study investigated the fauna of ectoparasitic crustaceans in Leporinus affinis from Reservoir Coaracy Nunes, in eastern Amazon (Brazil), as well as the parasite-host interactions. The mouth, gills and tegument of 50.9% of the fish examined were parasitized by Argulus chicomendesi, Ergasilus turucuyus and Excorallana berbicensis, and a total of 118 parasites were collected. The dominance was found for E. berbicensis and the higher infestation levels were caused by E. berbicensis on the body surface of the hosts, but E. turucuyus had the highest prevalence on the gills of this host. The cluster analysis revealed higher similarity in the infestations by E. berbicensis and A. chicomendesi in relation to infestation site in hosts. Host sex and relative condition factor (Kn) were not influenced by moderate parasitism, but the abundance of parasites presented negative correlation with weight and Kn of the fish. This is the first study on the parasites of L. affinis showing low species diversity, with moderate prevalence and low parasite abundance.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Marcos Tavares-Dias
- Embrapa Amapá, Macapá, AP, Brasil.,Programa de Pós-graduação em Biodiversidade Tropical - PPGBio, Universidade Federal do Amapá - UNIFAP, Macapá, AP, Brasil
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7
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Abstract
Complex life cycle parasites, including helminths, use intermediate hosts for development and definitive hosts for reproduction, with interactions between the two host types governed by food web structure. I study how a parasite's intermediate host range is controlled by the diet breadth of definitive host species and the cost of parasite generalism, a putative fitness cost that assumes host range trades off against fitness derived from a host species. In spite of such costs, a benefit to generalism may occur when the definitive host exhibits a large diet breadth, enhancing transmission of generalist parasites via consumption of a broad array of infected intermediate hosts. I develop a simple theoretical model to demonstrate how different host range infection strategies are differentially selected for across a gradient of definitive host diet breadth according to the cost of generalism. I then use a parasitic helminth-host database in conjunction with a food web database to show that diet breadth of definitive hosts promotes generalist infection strategies at the intermediate host level, indicating relatively low costs of parasite generalism among helminths.
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Affiliation(s)
- A W Park
- Odum School of Ecology, Center for Ecology of Infectious Diseases and Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
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8
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Baia RRJ, Florentino AC, Silva LMA, Tavares-Dias M. Patterns of the parasite communities in a fish assemblage of a river in the Brazilian Amazon region. Acta Parasitol 2018; 63:304-316. [PMID: 29654690 DOI: 10.1515/ap-2018-0035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2017] [Accepted: 01/19/2018] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
This paper characterizes the pattern of ectoparasite and endoparasite communities in an assemblage of 35 sympatric fish from different trophic levels in a tributary from the Amazon River system, northern Brazil. In detritivorous, carnivorous, omnivorous and piscivorous hosts, the species richness consisted of 82 ectoparasites and endoparasites, but protozoan ectoparasites such as Ichthyophthirius multifiliis, Piscinoodinium pillulare and Tripartiella sp. were dominant species predominated, such that they were present in 80% of the hosts. The taxon richness was in the following order: Monogenea > Nematoda > Digenea > Crustacea > Protozoa > Acanthocephala = Cestoda > Hirudinea. Among the hosts, the highest number of parasitic associations occurred in Satanoperca jurupari, Aequidens tetramerus, Hoplerythrinus unitaeniatus, Hoplosternum littorale, Cichlasoma amazonarum, Chaetobranchus flavescens, Squaliforma emarginata, Chaetobranchopsis orbicularis and Hoplias malabaricus. A weak positive correlation between ectoparasite abundance and length of the hosts was observed. Ectoparasite communities of detritivorous, carnivorous and omnivorous hosts were similar, but these differed from the communities of piscivorous hosts. Larval endoparasite species with low host specificity were the main determinants of the parasite infracommunity structure of the fish assemblage. Fish assemblage had few species of helminth that were specialist endoparasites, while many were parasites at the larval stage, infecting intermediate and paratenic hosts. Finally, carnivorous and omnivorous hosts harbored endoparasite communities that were more heterogeneous than those of detritivorous and piscivorous hosts. This result lends supports to the notion that the feeding habits of the host species are a significant factor in determining the endoparasites fauna.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raimundo Rosemiro Jesus Baia
- Embrapa Amapá, Macapá, Amapá, Brazil
- Postgraduate Program on Tropical Biodiversity, Federal University of Amapá, Macapá, Amapá, Brazil
| | | | - Luís Maurício Abdon Silva
- Institute of Scientific and Technological Research of the State of Amapá (IEPA), Macapá, Amapá, Brazil
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9
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Lello J, Fenton A. Lost in transmission…? Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2018; 372:rstb.2016.0082. [PMID: 28289250 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2016.0082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/22/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Joanne Lello
- School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Sir Martin Evans Building, Museum Avenue, Cardiff CF10 3AX, UK .,Department of Biodiversity and Molecular Ecology, Research and Innovation Centre, Fondazione Edmund Mach, Via E. Mach 1, 38010 S. Michele all'Adige (TN), Italy
| | - Andy Fenton
- Institute of Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 7ZB, UK
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Antonovics J, Wilson AJ, Forbes MR, Hauffe HC, Kallio ER, Leggett HC, Longdon B, Okamura B, Sait SM, Webster JP. The evolution of transmission mode. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2017; 372:rstb.2016.0083. [PMID: 28289251 PMCID: PMC5352810 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2016.0083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/05/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
This article reviews research on the evolutionary mechanisms leading to different transmission modes. Such modes are often under genetic control of the host or the pathogen, and often in conflict with each other via trade-offs. Transmission modes may vary among pathogen strains and among host populations. Evolutionary changes in transmission mode have been inferred through experimental and phylogenetic studies, including changes in transmission associated with host shifts and with evolution of the unusually complex life cycles of many parasites. Understanding the forces that determine the evolution of particular transmission modes presents a fascinating medley of problems for which there is a lack of good data and often a lack of conceptual understanding or appropriate methodologies. Our best information comes from studies that have been focused on the vertical versus horizontal transmission dichotomy. With other kinds of transitions, theoretical approaches combining epidemiology and population genetics are providing guidelines for determining when and how rapidly new transmission modes may evolve, but these are still in need of empirical investigation and application to particular cases. Obtaining such knowledge is a matter of urgency in relation to extant disease threats.This article is part of the themed issue 'Opening the black box: re-examining the ecology and evolution of parasite transmission'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janis Antonovics
- Department of Biology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22904, USA
| | - Anthony J Wilson
- Integrative Entomology group, Vector-borne Viral Diseases programme, The Pirbright Institute, Pirbright GU24 0NF, UK
| | - Mark R Forbes
- Department of Biology, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada K1S 5B7
| | - Heidi C Hauffe
- Department of Biodiversity and Molecular Ecology, Research and Innovation Centre, Fondazione Edmund Mach, Via E. Mach 1, 38010 S. Michele all'Adige, Trentino, Italy
| | - Eva R Kallio
- Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyvaskyla, PO Box 35, 40014 Jyvaskyla, Finland.,Department of Ecology, University of Oulu, PO Box 3000, 90014 Oulu, Finland
| | - Helen C Leggett
- Department of Genetics, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3EH, UK
| | - Ben Longdon
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter, Penryn Campus, Cornwall TR10 9FE, UK
| | - Beth Okamura
- Department of Life Sciences, Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London SW5 7BD, UK
| | - Steven M Sait
- School of Biology, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK
| | - Joanne P Webster
- Department of Pathology and Pathogen Biology, Centre for Emerging, Endemic and Exotic Diseases, Royal Veterinary College, University of London, London AL9 7TA, UK
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