Chlamydia trachomatis major outer membrane protein epitopes expressed as fusions with LamB in an attenuated aro A strain of Salmonella typhimurium; their application as potential immunogens

Advances in Chlamydia trachomatis Vaccination: Unveiling the Potential of Major Outer Membrane Protein Derivative Constructs

Chlamydia (C.) trachomatis, a leading cause of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) worldwide, continues to be a significant public health concern. The majority of infections are asymptomatic and, when left untreated, severe sequelae such as infertility and chronic pelvic pain can occur. Despite decades of research, an effective vaccine remains elusive. This review focuses on the potential of Major Outer Membrane Protein (MOMP)-derived constructs as promising candidates for C. trachomatis vaccination. MOMP, the most abundant protein in the outer membrane of C. trachomatis, has been a focal point of vaccine research over the years due to its antigenic properties. To overcome issues associated with the use of full MOMP as a vaccine antigen, derivative constructs have been studied. As these constructs are often not sufficiently immunogenic, antigen delivery systems or accompanying adjuvants are required. Additionally, several immunization routes have been explored with these MOMP-derived vaccine antigens, and determining the optimal route remains an ongoing area of research. Future directions and challenges in the field of C. trachomatis vaccination are discussed.

Chlamydia trachomatis infection: host immune responses and potential vaccines

Chlamydia trachomatis causes genital tract infections that affect men, women, and children on a global scale. This review focuses on innate and adaptive immune responses in the female reproductive tract (FRT) to genital tract infections with C. trachomatis. It covers C. trachomatis infections and highlights our current knowledge of genital tract infections, serovar distribution, infectious load, and clinical manifestations of these infections in women. The unique features of the immune system of the FRT will be discussed and will include a review of our current knowledge of innate and adaptive immunity to chlamydial infections at this mucosal site. The use of animal models to study the pathogenesis of, and immunity to, Chlamydia infection of the female genital tract will also be discussed and a review of recent immunization and challenge experiments in the murine model of chlamydial FRT infection will be presented.

Vaccination against chlamydial infections of man and animals

Vaccination is the best approach for controlling the spread of chlamydial infections, in animal and human populations. This review summarises the progress that has been made towards the development of effective vaccines over the last 50 years, and discusses current vaccine strategies. The ultimate goal of vaccine research is to develop efficacious vaccines that induce sterile, long-lasting, heterotypic protective immune responses. To date, the greatest success has been in developing whole organism based killed or live attenuated vaccines against the animal pathogens Chlamydophila abortus and Chlamydophila felis. However, similar approaches have proved unsuccessful in combating human chlamydial infections. More recently, emphasis has been placed on the development of subunit or multicomponent vaccines, as cheaper, safer and more stable alternatives. Central to this is a need to identify candidate vaccine antigens, which is being aided by the sequencing of representative genomes of all of the chlamydial species. In addition, it is necessary to identify suitable adjuvants and develop methods for antigen delivery that are capable of eliciting mucosal and systemic cellular and humoral immune responses. DNA vaccination in particular holds much promise, particularly in terms of safety and stability, although it has so far been less effective in humans and large animals than in mice. Thus, much research still needs to be done to improve the delivery of plasmid DNA, as well as the expression and presentation of antigens to ensure that effective immune responses are induced.

Autodisplay: efficacious surface exposure of antigenic UreA fragments from Helicobacter pylori in Salmonella vaccine strains

Live attenuated Salmonella strains expressing antigens of pathogens are promising oral vaccine candidates. There is growing evidence that the topology of expression of the foreign antigens can have a dramatic impact on the immunogenicity. We examined the potential of the AIDA-I (Escherichia coli adhesin involved in diffuse adherence) autotransporter domain to display antigenic fragments of the urease A subunit of Helicobacter pylori for the induction of a protective immune response. In the murine H. pylori model, protection is mainly mediated by CD4(+) T cells, and we therefore used the AIDA-I expression system to successfully express both nearly full-length UreA and defined T-helper-cell epitopes on the surface of an attenuated Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium vaccine strain. Surface exposure of the large UreA fragment or of one UreA T-cell epitope mediated a significant reduction in the level of H. pylori in immunized mice after challenge infection, whereas conventional cytoplasmic expression of UreA in Salmonella had no effect. These results support the concept that surface display increases the immunogenicity of recombinant antigens expressed on oral live vaccine carriers and further demonstrate the feasibility of immunizing against H. pylori with Salmonella vaccine strains expressing CD4(+) T-cell epitopes.

Recombinant Vibrio cholerae ghosts as a delivery vehicle for vaccinating against Chlamydia trachomatis

An efficacious vaccine is needed to control the morbidity and burden of rising healthcare costs associated with genital Chlamydia trachomatis infection. Despite considerable efforts, the development of reliable chlamydial vaccines using conventional strategies has proven to be elusive. The 40kDa major outer membrane protein (MOMP) of C. trachomatis is so far the most promising candidate for a subunit vaccine. The lack of satisfactory protective immunity with MOMP-based vaccine regimens to date would suggest that either MOMP alone is inadequate as a vaccine candidate or better delivery systems are needed to optimize the effect of MOMP. Recombinant Vibrio cholerae ghosts (rVCG) are attractive for use as non-living vaccines because they possess strong adjuvant properties and are excellent vehicles for delivery of antigens of vaccine relevance to mucosal sites. The suitability of the ghost technology for designing an anti-chlamydial vaccine was evaluated by constructing a rVCG vector-based candidate vaccine expressing MOMP (rVCG-MOMP) and assessing vaccine efficacy in a murine model of C. trachomatis genital infection. Intramuscular delivery of the rVCG-MOMP vaccine induced elevated local genital mucosal as well as systemic Th1 responses. In addition, immune T cells from immunized mice could transfer partial protection against a C. trachomatis genital challenge to nai;ve mice. These results suggest that rVCG expressing chlamydial proteins may constitute a suitable subunit vaccine for inducing an efficient mucosal T cell response that protects against C. trachomatis infection. Altogether, the potency and relatively low production cost of rVCG offer a significant technical advantage as a chlamydial vaccine.

Autodisplay: development of an efficacious system for surface display of antigenic determinants in Salmonella vaccine strains

To optimize antigen delivery by Salmonella vaccine strains, a system for surface display of antigenic determinants was established by using the autotransporter secretion pathway of gram-negative bacteria. A modular system for surface display allowed effective targeting of heterologous antigens or fragments thereof to the bacterial surface by the autotransporter domain of AIDA-I, the Escherichia coli adhesin involved in diffuse adherence. A major histocompatibility complex class II-restricted epitope, comprising amino acids 74 to 86 of the Yersinia enterocolitica heat shock protein Hsp60 (Hsp60(74-86)), was fused to the AIDA-I autotransporter domain, and the resulting fusion protein was expressed at high levels on the cell surface of E. coli and Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium. Colonization studies in mice vaccinated with Salmonella strains expressing AIDA-I fusion proteins demonstrated high genetic stability of the generated vaccine strain in vivo. Furthermore, a pronounced T-cell response against Yersinia Hsp60(74-86) was induced in mice vaccinated with a Salmonella vaccine strain expressing the Hsp60(74-86)-AIDA-I fusion protein. This was shown by monitoring Yersinia Hsp60-stimulated IFN-gamma secretion and proliferation of splenic T cells isolated from vaccinated mice. These results demonstrate that the surface display of antigenic determinants by the autotransporter pathway deserves special attention regarding the application in live attenuated Salmonella vaccine strains.

Chlamydia vaccines: strategies and status

The ultimate goal of current chlamydial vaccine efforts is to utilise either conventional or modern vaccinology approaches to produce a suitable immunisation regimen capable of inducing a sterilising, long-lived heterotypic protective immunity at mucosal sites of infection to curb the severe morbidity and worldwide prevalence of chlamydial infections. This lofty goal poses tremendous challenges that include the need to clearly define the relevant effectors mediating immunity, the antigens responsible for inducing these effectors, the anti-chlamydial action(s) of effectors, and establishment of the most effective method of vaccine delivery. Tackling these challenges is further compounded by the biological complexity of chlamydia, the existence of multiple serovariants, the capacity to induce both protective and deleterious immune effectors, and the occurrence of asymptomatic and persistent infections. Thus, novel molecular, immunological and genetic approaches are urgently needed to extend the frontiers of current knowledge, and develop new paradigms to guide the production of an effective vaccine regimen. Progress made in the last 15 years has culminated in various paradigm shifts in the approaches to designing chlamydial vaccines. The dawn of the current immunological paradigm for antichlamydial vaccine design has its antecedence in the recognition that chlamydial immunity is mediated primarily by a T helper type1 (Th1) response, requiring the induction and recruitment of specific T cells into the mucosal microenvironment. Additionally, the ancillary role of humoral immune response in complementing the Th1-driven protective immunity, through ensuring adequate memory and optimal Th1 response during a reinfection, has been recognised. With continued progress in chlamydial genomics and proteomics, select chlamydial proteins, including structural, membrane and secretory proteins, are being targeted as potential subunit vaccine candidates. However, the development of an effective adjuvant, delivery vehicle or system for a potential subunit vaccine is still an elusive objective in these efforts. Promising delivery vehicles include DNA and virus vectors, bacterial ghosts and dendritic cells. Finally, a vaccine still represents the best approach to protect the greatest number of people against the ocular, pulmonary and genital diseases caused by chlamydial infections. Therefore, considering the urgency and the enormity of these challenges, a partially protective vaccine preventing certain severe sequelae would constitute an acceptable short-term goal to control Chlamydia. However, more research efforts and support are needed to achieve the worthy goal of protecting a significant number of the world's population from the devastating consequences of chlamydial invasion of the human mucosal epithelia.

Salmonella: immune responses and vaccines

Salmonella infections are a serious medical and veterinary problem world-wide and cause concern in the food industry. Vaccination is an effective tool for the prevention of Salmonella infections. Host resistance to Salmonella relies initially on the production of inflammatory cytokines leading to the infiltration of activated inflammatory cells in the tissues. Thereafter T- and B-cell dependent specific immunity develops allowing the clearance of Salmonella microorganisms from the tissues and the establishment of long-lasting acquired immunity to re-infection. The increased resistance that develops after primary infection/ vaccination requires T-cells cytokines such as IFNgamma TNFalpha and IL12 in addition to opsonising antibody. However for reasons that are not fully understood seroconversion and/or the presence of detectable T-cell memory do not always correlate with the development of acquired resistance to infection.Whole-cell killed vaccines and subunit vaccines are used in the prevention of Salmonella infection in animals and in humans with variable results. A number of early live Salmonella vaccines derived empirically by chemical or u.v. mutagenesis proved to be immunogenic and protective and are still in use despite the need for repeated parenteral administration. Recent progress in the knowledge of the genetics of Salmonella virulence and modern recombinant DNA technology offers the possibility to introduce multiple defined attenuating and irreversible mutations into the bacterial genome. This has recently allowed the development of Salmonella strains devoid of significant side effects but still capable of inducing solid immunity after single oral administration. Live attenuated Salmonella vaccines have been used for the expression of heterologous antigens/proteins that can be successfully delivered to the immune system. Furthermore Salmonella can transfer plasmids encoding foreign antigens under the control of eukaryotic promoters (DNA vaccines) to antigen-presenting cells resulting in targeted delivery of DNA vaccines to these cells. Despite the great recent advances in the development of Salmonella vaccines a large proportion of the work has been conducted in laboratory rodents and more research in other animal species is required.

Induction of protective immunity against Chlamydia trachomatis genital infection by a vaccine based on major outer membrane protein-lipophilic immune response-stimulating complexes

The significance of delivery systems in modern vaccine design strategies is underscored by the fact that a promising vaccine formulation may fail in vivo due to an inappropriate delivery method. We evaluated the immunogenicity and efficacy of a candidate vaccine comprising the major outer membrane protein (MOMP) of Chlamydia trachomatis delivered with the lipophilic immune response-stimulating complexes (ISCOMs) as a vehicle with adjuvant properties, in a murine model of chlamydial genital infection. Immunocompetent BALB/c mice were immunized intranasally (IN) or intramuscularly (IM) with MOMP, MOMP-ISCOMs, and live or heat-inactivated C. trachomatis serovar D. The level of local genital mucosal Th1 response was measured by assaying for antigen-specific Th1 cell induction and recruitment into the genital mucosa at different times after immunization. Immunization with MOMP-ISCOMs by the IM route induced the greatest and fastest local genital mucosal Th1 response, first detectable 2 weeks after exposure. Among the other routes and regimens tested, only IN immunization with MOMP-ISCOMs induced detectable and statistically significant levels of local genital mucosal Th1 response during the 8-week test period (P < 0.001). In addition, when T cells from immunized mice were adoptively transferred into syngeneic naive animals and challenged intravaginally with Chlamydia, recipients of IM immunization of MOMP-ISCOMs cleared their infection within 1 week and were resistant to reinfection. Animals that received IN immunization of MOMP-ISCOMs were partially protected, shedding fewer chlamydiae than did control mice. Altogether, the results suggested that IM delivery of MOMP-ISCOMs may be a suitable vaccine regimen potentially capable of inducing protective mucosal immunity against C. trachomatis infection.

Characterization of immune responses following intramuscular DNA immunization with the MOMP gene of Chlamydia trachomatis mouse pneumonitis strain

Studies were carried out to characterize the cellular and humoral immune responses evoked by intramuscular DNA vaccination with the major outer membrane protein (MOMP) gene of Chlamydia trachomatis mouse pneumonitis strain. The data demonstrate that DNA vaccinated mice develop antigen-specific delayed-type hypersensitivity, lymphocyte proliferation and interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) production. Serum antibody responses (mainly immunoglobulin G2a; IgG2a) were evoked in two-thirds of the mice. We conclude that intramuscular DNA immunization with the MOMP gene evokes cellular and humoral immune responses suggestive of a T helper 1 (Th1) bias.

Vaccines against Chlamydia: approaches and progress

Infections of the eye and genital tract with the bacterium Chlamydia trachomatis are a major cause of morbidity worldwide and are costly to treat. Development of a vaccine capable of protecting against infection or severe disease presents special challenges but would be the most effective long-term option for control of chlamydial disease. Progress has been made in understanding protective and pathological immune mechanisms in these infections, and a number of potential vaccine candidates have been developed.

Expression and immunogenicity of an Echinococcus granulosus fatty acid-binding protein in live attenuated Salmonella vaccine strains

Fatty acid-binding proteins (FABPs) are candidate molecules for vaccines against several parasitic platyhelminths. A FABP from the cestode Echinococcus granulosus (EgDf1) was expressed in Salmonella vaccine strains as a C-terminal fusion to fragment C of tetanus toxin (TetC) by using expression vector pTECH. The fusion protein was equally expressed in several attenuated vaccine strains derived from bacteria with different genetic backgrounds and different attenuating mutations. Single-dose immunization experiments with the aroA Salmonella typhimurium strain SL3261 carrying the pTECH-EgDf1 construct were conducted with mice, using both the intravenous and the oral routes. Surprisingly, the antibody response to EgDf1 and the antigen-specific cytokine production in spleen cells were stronger in mice immunized orally. Furthermore, immune mouse sera strongly reacted with fixed sections of the worm's larval stage. Analysis of the isotype distribution of the specific anti-EgDf1 antibodies showed similar production of immunoglobulin G1 (IgG1) and IgG2a together with specific IgA antibodies. In addition, stimulation of spleen cells from mice immunized with the different constructs with either Salmonella lysate, TetC, or EgDf1 showed that, together with Th1-related cytokines (gamma interferon and interleukin 2 [IL-2]), significant levels of a Th2 cytokine (IL-5) were produced specifically, indicating a Th2 component to the response to the Salmonella carrier and to the recombinant antigens. Salmonellae expressing the TetC-rEgDfl fusion are currently under evaluation as potential vaccines against E. granulosus.

Capture-ELISA: a new assay for the detection of immunoglobulin M isotype antibodies using Chlamydia trachomatis antigen

We present here a new method of IgM antibody-capture enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (IgM-Capture-ELISA) for the diagnosis of recently acquired infections with Chlamydia trachomatis. For this analysis, plates were coated with goat IgG anti-human Fc mu. The capture of serum IgM antibodies was revealed indirectly by the sequential addition of biotinylated chlamydial proteins and peroxidase-conjugated streptavidin. In chlamydial extracts, cysteine-rich proteins are preferential antigenic targets for the humoral response. 3-(N-maleimidopropionyl)-biocytin (MPB), which binds biotinylated moieties to sulfhydryl groups, was used for the labeling procedure. The preservation of the antigenic specificity of labeled proteins was controlled by a blotting of these proteins, which were, respectively, probed either with specific IgM antibodies or with streptavidin. This analysis revealed that, after labeling, recognized epitopes are more particularly present on the major outer membrane protein (MOMP) of Chlamydia trachomatis. The validation of IgM-Capture-ELISA was assessed by using 170 selected sera from patients suspected of being infected by Chlamydia. Results were respectively compared to conventional indirect immunofluorescence assays (MIF-IgM assays) and to Western blotting. Sixteen sera were found to possess IgM antibodies against Chlamydia trachomatis with IgM-Capture-ELISA. Among these 16 sera, 14 and 15 were, respectively, positive with MIF-IgM assays and in Western blotting. Data obtained with IgM-Capture-ELISA reveal the absence of false-positive results in sera containing rheumatoid factor, which has been shown to interfere in the two other methods. IgM-Capture-ELISA value was then confirmed using sera from patients consulting for genital or pulmonary diseases, from patients with confirmed chlamydial infections, and from patients with other pathologies. IgM-Capture-ELISA appears as an alternative simple semi-quantitative assay for the detection of early chlamydial infection.

An oligomer of the major outer membrane protein of Chlamydia psittaci is recognized by monoclonal antibodies which protect mice from abortion

Monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) were generated against an ovine abortive strain of Chlamydia psittaci. A plaque reduction assay was used to select 19 neutralizing antibodies which appeared to be heterogeneous in isotype, specificity, and recognized proteins. Different neutralizing MAbs were tested for their protective abilities against abortion in a pregnant-mouse model. All of the protective MAbs selected had the same isotype, were serotype 1 specific, and recognized a protein of about 110 kDa by immunoblotting. The recognized epitopes were resistant to sodium dodecyl sulfate and reducing agents, but all of them were heat sensitive. The protein was able to form disulfide-linked polymers. Immunological cross-reaction studies with rabbit sera showed a link between the 110-kDa protein and the major outer membrane protein (MOMP). The 110-kDa protein was purified by immunoaffinity and shown to be dissociated after heating into MOMP by silver staining and immunoblotting. These results show homogeneity among protective MAbs directed to heat-sensitive epitopes located on an oligomer of the MOMP of C. psittaci.

Bacillus anthracis protective antigen, expressed in Salmonella typhimurium SL 3261, affords protection against anthrax spore challenge

The protective antigen (PA) gene from Bacillus anthracis has been expressed in Salmonella typhimurium SL 3261 (aroA). Expression was achieved by cloning the gene after the plac promoter in a high copy number plasmid. The recombinant PA was exported into the periplasm. This construct was unstable in vivo and also reduced the colonization ability of the host S. typhimurium. Mouse-passaging of the recombinant Salmonella resulted in a strain with enhanced colonization ability and increased stability of the plasmid in vivo. This effect appeared to be due to a reduction in copy number of the PA-encoding plasmid. Mice were vaccinated with recombinant S. typhimurium and adjuvanted PA and challenged with virulent B. anthracis. Only mice vaccinated with adjuvanted PA or orally with the mouse-passaged recombinant showed partial protection. The degree of protection observed after oral vaccination with the recombinant S. typhimurium was similar to the degree of protection afforded by adjuvanted PA and suggested that the use of S. typhimurium to deliver PA is an effective approach for inducing protection against B. anthracis. The results presented also suggest that the degree of protection demonstrated in the mouse may not fully indicate the potential of the recombinant Salmonella as an effective vaccine in other species.

Humoral and cell-mediated immunity in mice to a 17-kilodalton lipoprotein of Francisella tularensis expressed by Salmonella typhimurium

A 17-kDa lipoprotein, TUL4, of the facultative intracellular bacterium Francisella tularensis is one of several membrane proteins that induce an in vitro response in T cells from F. tularensis-primed humans. A DNA fragment of the live vaccine strain F. tularensis LVS encoding TUL4 was cloned into Salmonella typhimurium chi 4072, an attenuated delta cya delta crp mutant. Expression of the protein by the recombinant S. typhimurium chi 4072 (pTUL4-15) was maintained after passage in BALB/cJ mice. When mice were immunized with S. typhimurium chi 4072(pTUL4-15), some animals showed an antibody response and a T-cell response to TUL4. When the immunized mice were challenged with the live vaccine strain F. tularensis LVS, bacterial counts in the liver and spleen were lower than in animals immunized with S. typhimurium chi 4072. Immunization with F. tularensis LVS caused a much stronger protection against the challenge than did immunization with S. typhimurium chi 4072(pTUL4-15). The present study demonstrated that the 17-kDa lipoprotein TUL4 of F. tularensis is involved in a protective immunity to tularemia. Possibly, several T-cell-reactive proteins of the organism have to contribute for optimal protection to be achieved.