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Brown C, Patrick J, Liebau J, Mäler L. The MIT domain of chitin synthase 1 from the oomycete Saprolegnia monoica interacts specifically with phosphatidic acid. Biochem Biophys Rep 2022; 30:101229. [PMID: 35198741 PMCID: PMC8851075 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrep.2022.101229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2021] [Revised: 02/02/2022] [Accepted: 02/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Chitin synthases are vital for growth in certain oomycetes as chitin is an essential component in the cell wall of these species. In Saprolegnia monoica, two chitin synthases have been found, and both contain a Microtubule Interacting and Trafficking (MIT) domain. The MIT domain has been implicated in lipid interaction, which in turn may be of significance for targeting of chitin synthases to the plasma membrane. In this work we have investigated the lipid interacting properties of the MIT domain from chitin synthase 1 in Saprolegnia monoica. We show by fluorescence spectroscopy techniques that the MIT domain interacts preferentially with phosphatidic acid (PA), while it does not interact with phosphatidylglycerol (PG) or phosphatidylcholine (PC). These results strongly suggest that the specific properties of PA are required for membrane interaction of the MIT domain. PA is negatively charged, binds basic side chains with high affinity and its small headgroup gives rise to membrane packing defects that enable intercalation of hydrophobic amino acids. We propose a mode of lipid interaction that involves a combination of basic amino acid residues and Trp residues that anchor the MIT domain specifically to bilayers that contain PA. MIT from chitin synthase 1 in S. monoica interacts specifically with PA. Interactions with lipids is does not depend only on charge. MIT does not alter its structure in response to lipids. Specific interaction with PA suggests a role for MIT in trafficking or insertion of chitin synthase 1.
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Hinkel L, Ospina-Giraldo MD. Structural characterization of a putative chitin synthase gene in Phytophthora spp. and analysis of its transcriptional activity during pathogenesis on potato and soybean plants. Curr Genet 2017; 63:909-921. [PMID: 28314907 DOI: 10.1007/s00294-017-0687-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2017] [Revised: 02/06/2017] [Accepted: 02/20/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Although chitin is a major component of the fungal cell wall, in oomycetes (fungal-like organisms), this compound has only been found in very little amounts, mostly in the cell wall of members of the genera Achlya and Saprolegnia. In the oomycetes Phytophthora infestans and P. sojae the presence of chitin has not been demonstrated; however, the gene putatively encoding chitin synthase (CHS), the enzyme that synthesizes chitin, is present in their genomes. The evolutionary significance of the CHS gene in P. infestans and P. sojae genomes is not fully understood and, therefore, further studies are warranted. We have cloned and characterized the putative CHS genes from two Phytophthora spp. and multiple isolates of P. infestans and P. sojae and analyzed their phylogenetic relationships. We also conducted CHS inhibition assays and measured CHS transcriptional activity in Phytophthora spp. during infection of susceptible plants. Results of our investigations suggest that CHS contains all the motifs that are typical in CHS genes of fungal origin and is expressed, at least at the mRNA level, during in vitro and in planta growth. In infected tissues, the highest levels of expression occurred in the first 12 h post inoculation. In addition, results from our inhibition experiments appear to suggest that CHS activity is important for P. infestans normal vegetative growth. Because of the considerable variation in expression during infection when compared to basal expression observed in in vitro cultures of non-sporulating mycelium, we hypothesize that CHS may have a meaningful role in Phytophthora pathogenicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren Hinkel
- Biology Department, Lafayette College, Easton, PA, USA
- Department of Cellular, Molecular, and Biomedical Sciences, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT, USA
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Torruella G, de Mendoza A, Grau-Bové X, Antó M, Chaplin MA, del Campo J, Eme L, Pérez-Cordón G, Whipps CM, Nichols KM, Paley R, Roger AJ, Sitjà-Bobadilla A, Donachie S, Ruiz-Trillo I. Phylogenomics Reveals Convergent Evolution of Lifestyles in Close Relatives of Animals and Fungi. Curr Biol 2015; 25:2404-10. [PMID: 26365255 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2015.07.053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2014] [Revised: 06/30/2015] [Accepted: 07/22/2015] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The Opisthokonta are a eukaryotic supergroup divided in two main lineages: animals and related protistan taxa, and fungi and their allies [1, 2]. There is a great diversity of lifestyles and morphologies among unicellular opisthokonts, from free-living phagotrophic flagellated bacterivores and filopodiated amoebas to cell-walled osmotrophic parasites and saprotrophs. However, these characteristics do not group into monophyletic assemblages, suggesting rampant convergent evolution within Opisthokonta. To test this hypothesis, we assembled a new phylogenomic dataset via sequencing 12 new strains of protists. Phylogenetic relationships among opisthokonts revealed independent origins of filopodiated amoebas in two lineages, one related to fungi and the other to animals. Moreover, we observed that specialized osmotrophic lifestyles evolved independently in fungi and protistan relatives of animals, indicating convergent evolution. We therefore analyzed the evolution of two key fungal characters in Opisthokonta, the flagellum and chitin synthases. Comparative analyses of the flagellar toolkit showed a previously unnoticed flagellar apparatus in two close relatives of animals, the filasterean Ministeria vibrans and Corallochytrium limacisporum. This implies that at least four different opisthokont lineages secondarily underwent flagellar simplification. Analysis of the evolutionary history of chitin synthases revealed significant expansions in both animals and fungi, and also in the Ichthyosporea and C. limacisporum, a group of cell-walled animal relatives. This indicates that the last opisthokont common ancestor had a complex toolkit of chitin synthases that was differentially retained in extant lineages. Thus, our data provide evidence for convergent evolution of specialized lifestyles in close relatives of animals and fungi from a generalist ancestor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guifré Torruella
- Institut de Biologia Evolutiva (CSIC-Universitat Pompeu Fabra), Passeig Marítim de la Barceloneta 37-49, Barcelona 08003, Catalonia, Spain; Departament de Genètica, Universitat de Barcelona, Avinguda Diagonal 645, Barcelona 08028, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Alex de Mendoza
- Institut de Biologia Evolutiva (CSIC-Universitat Pompeu Fabra), Passeig Marítim de la Barceloneta 37-49, Barcelona 08003, Catalonia, Spain; Departament de Genètica, Universitat de Barcelona, Avinguda Diagonal 645, Barcelona 08028, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Xavier Grau-Bové
- Institut de Biologia Evolutiva (CSIC-Universitat Pompeu Fabra), Passeig Marítim de la Barceloneta 37-49, Barcelona 08003, Catalonia, Spain; Departament de Genètica, Universitat de Barcelona, Avinguda Diagonal 645, Barcelona 08028, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Meritxell Antó
- Institut de Biologia Evolutiva (CSIC-Universitat Pompeu Fabra), Passeig Marítim de la Barceloneta 37-49, Barcelona 08003, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Mark A Chaplin
- Department of Microbiology, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Snyder Hall, 2538 McCarthy Mall, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA
| | - Javier del Campo
- Institut de Biologia Evolutiva (CSIC-Universitat Pompeu Fabra), Passeig Marítim de la Barceloneta 37-49, Barcelona 08003, Catalonia, Spain; Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Laura Eme
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Centre for Comparative Genomics and Evolutionary Bioinformatics, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS B3H 4R2, Canada
| | - Gregorio Pérez-Cordón
- Institute of Aquaculture Torre de la Sal, IATS-CSIC, Ribera de Cabanes s/n, Castelló 12595, Spain
| | - Christopher M Whipps
- Environmental and Forest Biology, State University of New York College of Environmental Science and Forestry (SUNY-ESF), Syracuse, NY 13210, USA
| | - Krista M Nichols
- Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA; Conservation Biology Division, Northwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2725 Montlake Boulevard East, Seattle, WA 98112, USA
| | - Richard Paley
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science, Weymouth Laboratory, Barrack Road, The Nothe, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK
| | - Andrew J Roger
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Centre for Comparative Genomics and Evolutionary Bioinformatics, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS B3H 4R2, Canada
| | - Ariadna Sitjà-Bobadilla
- Institute of Aquaculture Torre de la Sal, IATS-CSIC, Ribera de Cabanes s/n, Castelló 12595, Spain
| | - Stuart Donachie
- Department of Microbiology, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Snyder Hall, 2538 McCarthy Mall, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA
| | - Iñaki Ruiz-Trillo
- Institut de Biologia Evolutiva (CSIC-Universitat Pompeu Fabra), Passeig Marítim de la Barceloneta 37-49, Barcelona 08003, Catalonia, Spain; Departament de Genètica, Universitat de Barcelona, Avinguda Diagonal 645, Barcelona 08028, Catalonia, Spain; Institució Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avançats (ICREA), Passeig Lluís Companys 23, Barcelona 08010, Catalonia, Spain.
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Ospina-Giraldo MD, Griffith JG, Laird EW, Mingora C. The CAZyome of Phytophthora spp.: a comprehensive analysis of the gene complement coding for carbohydrate-active enzymes in species of the genus Phytophthora. BMC Genomics 2010; 11:525. [PMID: 20920201 PMCID: PMC2997016 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-11-525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2010] [Accepted: 09/28/2010] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Enzymes involved in carbohydrate metabolism include Carbohydrate esterases (CE), Glycoside hydrolases (GH), Glycosyl transferases (GT), and Polysaccharide lyases (PL), commonly referred to as carbohydrate-active enzymes (CAZymes). The CE, GH, and PL superfamilies are also known as cell wall degrading enzymes (CWDE) due to their role in the disintegration of the plant cell wall by bacterial and fungal pathogens. In Phytophthora infestans, penetration of the plant cells occurs through a specialized hyphal structure called appressorium; however, it is likely that members of the genus Phytophthora also use CWDE for invasive growth because hyphal forces are below the level of tensile strength exhibited by the plant cell wall. Because information regarding the frequency and distribution of CAZyme coding genes in Phytophthora is currently unknown, we have scanned the genomes of P. infestans, P. sojae, and P. ramorum for the presence of CAZyme-coding genes using a homology-based approach and compared the gene collinearity in the three genomes. In addition, we have tested the expression of several genes coding for CE in cultures grown in vitro. Results We have found that P. infestans, P. sojae and P. ramorum contain a total of 435, 379, and 310 CAZy homologs; in each genome, most homologs belong to the GH superfamily. Most GH and PL homologs code for enzymes that hydrolyze substances present in the pectin layer forming the middle lamella of the plant cells. In addition, a significant number of CE homologs catalyzing the deacetylation of compounds characteristic of the plant cell cuticle were found. In general, a high degree of gene location conservation was observed, as indicated by the presence of sequential orthologous pairs in the three genomes. Such collinearity was frequently observed among members of the GH superfamily. On the other hand, the CE and PL superfamilies showed less collinearity for some of their putative members. Quantitative PCR experiments revealed that all genes are expressed in P. infestans when this pathogen grown in vitro. However, the levels of expression vary considerably and are lower than the expression levels observed for the constitutive control. Conclusions In conclusion, we have identified a highly complex set of CAZy homologs in the genomes of P. infestans, P. sojae, and P. ramorum, a significant number of which could play roles critical for pathogenicity, by participating in the degradation of the plant cell wall.
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Maue L, Meissner D, Merzendorfer H. Purification of an active, oligomeric chitin synthase complex from the midgut of the tobacco hornworm. INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2009; 39:654-659. [PMID: 19576988 DOI: 10.1016/j.ibmb.2009.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2009] [Revised: 06/24/2009] [Accepted: 06/26/2009] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Chitin formation depends on the activity of a family II glycosyltransferase known as chitin synthase, whose biochemical and structural properties are largely unknown. Previously, we have demonstrated that the chitin portion of the peritrophic matrix in the midgut of the tobacco hornworm, Manduca sexta, is produced by chitin synthase 2 (CHS-2), one of two isoenzymes encoded by the Chs-1 and Chs-2 genes (also named Chs-A and Chs-B), and that CHS-2 is located at the apical tips of the brush border microvilli. Here we report the purification of the chitin synthase from the Manduca midgut as monitored by its activity and immuno-reactivity with antibodies to the chitin synthase. After gel permeation chromatography, the final step of the developed purification protocol, the active enzyme eluted in a fraction corresponding to a molecular mass between 440 and 670 kDa. Native PAGE revealed a single, immuno-reactive band of about 520 kDa, thrice the molecular mass of the chitin synthase monomer. SDS-PAGE and immunoblotting indicated finally that an active, oligomeric complex of the chitin synthase was purified. In summary, the chitin synthase from the midgut of Manduca may prove to be a good model for investigating the enzymes' mode of action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lars Maue
- Department of Biology/Chemistry, Division of Animal Physiology, University of Osnabrück, 49069 Osnabrück, Germany
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Badreddine I, Lafitte C, Heux L, Skandalis N, Spanou Z, Martinez Y, Esquerré-Tugayé MT, Bulone V, Dumas B, Bottin A. Cell wall chitosaccharides are essential components and exposed patterns of the phytopathogenic oomycete Aphanomyces euteiches. EUKARYOTIC CELL 2008; 7:1980-93. [PMID: 18806214 PMCID: PMC2583540 DOI: 10.1128/ec.00091-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2008] [Accepted: 08/19/2008] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Chitin is an essential component of fungal cell walls, where it forms a crystalline scaffold, and chitooligosaccharides derived from it are signaling molecules recognized by the hosts of pathogenic fungi. Oomycetes are cellulosic fungus-like microorganisms which most often lack chitin in their cell walls. Here we present the first study of the cell wall of the oomycete Aphanomyces euteiches, a major parasite of legume plants. Biochemical analyses demonstrated the presence of ca. 10% N-acetyl-D-glucosamine (GlcNAc) in the cell wall. Further characterization of the GlcNAc-containing material revealed that it corresponds to noncrystalline chitosaccharides associated with glucans, rather than to chitin per se. Two putative chitin synthase (CHS) genes were identified by data mining of an A. euteiches expressed sequence tag collection and Southern blot analysis, and full-length cDNA sequences of both genes were obtained. Phylogeny analysis indicated that oomycete CHS diversification occurred before the divergence of the major oomycete lineages. Remarkably, lectin labeling showed that the Aphanomyces euteiches chitosaccharides are exposed at the cell wall surface, and study of the effect of the CHS inhibitor nikkomycin Z demonstrated that they are involved in cell wall function. These data open new perspectives for the development of antioomycete drugs and further studies of the molecular mechanisms involved in the recognition of pathogenic oomycetes by the host plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilham Badreddine
- UMR 5546, CNRS-Université Paul-Sabatier, 24 Chemin de Borde-Rouge, BP 42617, Auzeville, F-31326 Castanet-Tolosan, France
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Abstract
José Ruiz-Herrera's discovery that chitin microfibrils could be made by a fungal extract paved the way for elucidating the intracellular location of chitin synthetase. In collaboration with Charles Bracker, chitosomes were identified as the major reservoir of chitin synthetase in fungi. Unique in size, buoyant density, and membrane thickness, chitosomes were found in a wide range of fungi. Their reversible dissociation into 16S subunits is another unique property of chitosomes. These 16S subunits are the smallest molecular entities known to retain chitin synthetase activity. Further dissociation leads to complete loss of activity. From studies with secretory mutants, yeast researchers concluded that chitosomes were components of the endocytosis pathway. However, key structural and enzymatic characteristics argue in favor of the chitosome being poised for exocytotic delivery rather than endocytotic recycling. The chitosome represents the main vehicle for delivering chitin synthetase to the cell surface. An immediate challenge is to elucidate chitosome ontogeny and the role of proteins encoded by the reported chitin synthetase genes in the structure or function of chitosomes. The ultimate challenge would be to understand how the chitosome integrates with the cell surface to construct the organized microfibrillar skeleton of the fungal cell wall.
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Affiliation(s)
- Salomon Bartnicki-Garcia
- Department of Microbiology, Division of Experimental and Applied Biology, CICESE (Center for Scientific Investigation & Higher Education of Ensenada), Baja California, Mexico.
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Rast DM, Baumgartner D, Mayer C, Hollenstein GO. Cell wall-associated enzymes in fungi. PHYTOCHEMISTRY 2003; 64:339-366. [PMID: 12943752 DOI: 10.1016/s0031-9422(03)00350-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
This review compiles and discusses previous reports on the identity of wall-associated enzymes (WAEs) in fungi and addresses critically the widely different terminologies used in the literature to specify the type of bonding of WAEs to other entities of the cell wall compartment, the extracellular matrix (ECM). A facile and rapid fractionation protocol for catalytically active WAEs is presented, which uses crude cell walls as the experimental material, a variety of test enzymes (including representatives of polysaccharide synthases and hydrolases, phosphatases, gamma-glutamyltransferases, pyridine-nucleotide dehydrogenases and phenol-oxidising enzymes) and a combination of simple hydrophilic and hydrophobic extractants. The protocol provides four fully operationally defined classes of WAEs, with constituent members of each class displaying the same basic type of physicochemical interaction with binding partners in situ. The routine application of the protocol to different species and cell types could yield easily accessible data useful for building-up a general objective information retrieval system of WAEs, suitable as an heuristic basis both for the unravelling of the role and for the biotechnological potentialities of WAEs. A detailed account is given of the function played in the ECM by WAEs in the metabolism of chitin (chitin synthase, chitinase and beta-N-acetylhexosaminidase) and of phenols (tyrosinase).
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Affiliation(s)
- Dora M Rast
- Department of Plant Biology, University of Zürich, CH-8008 Zürich, Switzerland.
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Abstract
This article compiles the papers dealing with the biochemistry of chitin synthase (CS) published during the last decade, provides up-to-date information on the state of knowledge and understanding of chitin synthesis in vitro, and points out some firmly entrenched ideas and tenets of CS biochemistry that have become of age without hardly ever having been critically re-evaluated. The subject is dealt with under the headings "Components of the CS reaction" (educt, cation requirement and intermediates; product), "Regulation of CS" (cooperativity and allostery; non-allosteric activation or priming of CS; latency), "Concerted action of CS and enzymes of chitinolysis", "Inhibition of CS", "Multiplicity of CSs", and "Structure of CS" (the putative UDPGlcNAc-binding domain of CS; identification of CS polypeptides; glycoconjugation). The prospects are outlined of obtaining a refined three-dimensional (3D) model of the catalytic site of CS for biotechnological applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- R A Merz
- Department of Plant Biology, University of Zürich, Switzerland
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