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Chen L, Li W, Zhao Y, Zhang S, Meng L. Mechanism of sulfur-oxidizing inoculants and nitrate on regulating sulfur functional genes and bacterial community at the thermophilic compost stage. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2023; 326:116733. [PMID: 36372033 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2022.116733] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2022] [Revised: 11/05/2022] [Accepted: 11/05/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
The emission of H2S odors predominantly occurred at the thermophilic phase of composting, which could cause odorous gas pollution and reduce the fertilizer value of composting products. And sulfur-oxidizing bacteria (SOB) possess oxidative capacities for inorganic sulfur compounds with nitrate applied as electron acceptors. Therefore, this study aimed to assess the effectiveness of combined additives (SOB inoculants and nitrate) on the bacterial community diversity, sulfur-oxidizing gene abundances, and metabolic function prediction at the thermophilic stage of sewage sludge composting. The highest sulfate contents were increased by 1.02-1.34 folds, and the abundances of the sulfur-oxidizing genes (sqr, pdo, sox, and sor) were also enhanced by adding the combined additives. Network patterns revealed a strengthened interaction of inoculants and sulfur functional genes. Microbial functional pathways predicted higher metabolic levels of carbohydrate and amino acid metabolisms with the addition of combined additives, and the predicted relative abundances of sulfur metabolism and nitrogen metabolism were increased by 19.3 ± 2.5% and 24.7 ± 4.1%, respectively. Heatmap analysis showed that the SOB might have a competitive advantage over the indigenous denitrifying bacteria in using nitrate for biochemical reactions. Correlation analyses suggested that sulfur-oxidizing efficacy could be indirectly affected by the environmental parameters through changing the structure of bacterial community. These findings provide new insights toward an optimized inoculation strategy of using SOB and nitrate to enhance sulfur preservation and modulate the bacterial communities at the thermophilic phase of sewage sludge composting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Chen
- School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, 150090, China
| | - Weiguang Li
- School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, 150090, China; State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, 150090, China.
| | - Yi Zhao
- School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, 150090, China
| | - Shumei Zhang
- Institute of Microbiology, Heilongjiang Academy of Sciences, Harbin, 150010, China
| | - Liqiang Meng
- Institute of Microbiology, Heilongjiang Academy of Sciences, Harbin, 150010, China
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Duangupama T, Pittayakhajonwut P, Intaraudom C, Suriyachadkun C, Sirirote P, He YW, Thawai C. Streptomyces sennicomposti sp. nov., an actinomycete isolated from compost of Senna siamea (Lam.). Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 2022; 72. [DOI: 10.1099/ijsem.0.005320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
A member of the genus
Streptomyces
, designated RCPT1-4T, was isolated from compost of Senna siamea (Lam.), collected from an agricultural area in Rayong province, Thailand. The spore morphology and the presence of ll-diaminopimelic acid in the peptidoglycan indicate that RCPT1-4T shows the typical properties of members of the genus
Streptomyces
. On the basis of the results of 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis, the strain should be classified as representing a member of the genus
Streptomyces
and was most closely related to
Streptomyces fumigatiscleroticus
NBRC 12999T with the highest 16S rRNA gene sequence similarity of 99.2 %, followed by
Streptomyces spiralis
NBRC 14215T (99.0 %). In addition, RCPT1-4T shared the highest average nucleotide identity by blast (ANIb) (86.0 %), and digital DNA–DNA hybridization (dDDH) (32.1 %) values with
S. spiralis
NBRC 14215T. Furthermore, several physiological and biochemical differences were observed between RCPT1-4T and the closely related type strains of species with validly published names. These taxonomic data indicated that RCPT1-4T could be considered to represent a novel species of the genus
Streptomyces
and the name Streptomyces sennicomposti sp. nov. is proposed for this strain. The type strain is RCPT1-4T (=TBRC 11260T=NBRC 114303T).
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Affiliation(s)
- Thitikorn Duangupama
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, King Mongkut’s Institute of Technology Ladkrabang, Bangkok 10520, Thailand
| | - Pattama Pittayakhajonwut
- National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC), National Science and Technology Development Agency (NSTDA), Thailand Science Park, Phaholyothin Road, Klong Luang, Pathum Thani, 12120, Thailand
| | - Chakapong Intaraudom
- National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC), National Science and Technology Development Agency (NSTDA), Thailand Science Park, Phaholyothin Road, Klong Luang, Pathum Thani, 12120, Thailand
| | - Chanwit Suriyachadkun
- Thailand Bioresource Research Center (TBRC), National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC), National Science and Technology Development Agency (NSTDA), 113 Thailand Science Park, Phaholyothin Road, Khlong Nueng, Khlong Luang, Pathum Thani 12120, Thailand
| | - Pramote Sirirote
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, King Mongkut’s Institute of Technology Ladkrabang, Bangkok 10520, Thailand
| | - Ya-Wen He
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, School of Life Sciences & Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, PR China
| | - Chitti Thawai
- Actinobacterial Research Unit, Faculty of Science, King Mongkut’s Institute of Technology Ladkrabang, Bangkok 10520, Thailand
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, King Mongkut’s Institute of Technology Ladkrabang, Bangkok 10520, Thailand
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Gao X, Xu Z, Li Y, Zhang L, Li G, Nghiem LD, Luo W. Bacterial dynamics for gaseous emission and humification in bio-augmented composting of kitchen waste. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 801:149640. [PMID: 34416604 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.149640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2021] [Revised: 08/04/2021] [Accepted: 08/09/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Using high-throughput sequencing and Functional Annotation of Prokaryotic Taxa (FAPROTAX), this study aimed to elucidate the effect of bacterial dynamics on gaseous emission and humification of kitchen and garden wastes during composting augmented with microbial inoculants. Microbial inoculant addition at up to 0.9% resulted in a diverse bacterial community with more functional bacteria to amend gaseous emission and enhance humification. Microbial inoculation facilitated the enrichment of aerobic bacteria (e.g. the genus Bacillus and Thermobifida) to enhance cellulolysis and ligninolysis to advance organic humification. By contrast, several bacteria, such as the genus Weissella and Pusillimonas were inhibited by microbial inoculation to weaken fermentation and nitrate respiration. As such, bio-augmented composting with 0.9% microbial inoculant reduced the emission of methane by 11-20% and nitrogen oxide by 17-54%. On the other hand, ammonia and hydrogen sulphide emissions increased by 26-62% and 5-23%, respectively, in bio-augmented composting due to the considerable proliferation of the genus Bacillus and Desulfitibacter to enhance ammonification and sulphur-related respiration. Results from this study highlight the need to further develop efficient and multifunctional microbial inoculants that promote humification and deodorization for bio-augmented composting of kitchen waste as well as other carbon and nutrient rich organic wastes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xingzu Gao
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Farmland Soil Pollution Prevention and Remediation, College of Resources and Environmental Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Zhicheng Xu
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Farmland Soil Pollution Prevention and Remediation, College of Resources and Environmental Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Ying Li
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Farmland Soil Pollution Prevention and Remediation, College of Resources and Environmental Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Lanxia Zhang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Farmland Soil Pollution Prevention and Remediation, College of Resources and Environmental Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Guoxue Li
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Farmland Soil Pollution Prevention and Remediation, College of Resources and Environmental Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Long D Nghiem
- Centre for Technology in Water and Wastewater, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, NSW 2007, Australia
| | - Wenhai Luo
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Farmland Soil Pollution Prevention and Remediation, College of Resources and Environmental Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China.
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Ningsih F, Yokota A, Sakai Y, Nanatani K, Yabe S, Oetari A, Sjamsuridzal W. Gandjariella thermophila gen. nov., sp. nov., a new member of the family Pseudonocardiaceae, isolated from forest soil in a geothermal area. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 2019; 69:3080-3086. [DOI: 10.1099/ijsem.0.003594] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Fitria Ningsih
- Center of Excellence for Indigenous Biological Resources-Genome Studies, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Universitas Indonesia, Kampus UI Depok, 16424, Indonesia
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Universitas Indonesia, Kampus UI Depok, 16424, Indonesia
| | - Akira Yokota
- Department of Microbial Resources, Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Tohoku University, Tohoku University, 468-1 Aoba, Aramaki, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi 980-0845, Japan
| | - Yasuteru Sakai
- Hazaka Plant Research Center, Kennan Eisei Kogyo Co., Ltd, 44 Aza-Inariyama, Oaza-Ashitate, Murata-cho, Shibata-gun, Miyagi 989-1311, Japan
- Department of Microbial Resources, Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Tohoku University, Tohoku University, 468-1 Aoba, Aramaki, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi 980-0845, Japan
| | - Kei Nanatani
- Department of Microbial Resources, Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Tohoku University, Tohoku University, 468-1 Aoba, Aramaki, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi 980-0845, Japan
| | - Shuhei Yabe
- Hazaka Plant Research Center, Kennan Eisei Kogyo Co., Ltd, 44 Aza-Inariyama, Oaza-Ashitate, Murata-cho, Shibata-gun, Miyagi 989-1311, Japan
- Department of Microbial Resources, Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Tohoku University, Tohoku University, 468-1 Aoba, Aramaki, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi 980-0845, Japan
| | - Ariyanti Oetari
- Center of Excellence for Indigenous Biological Resources-Genome Studies, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Universitas Indonesia, Kampus UI Depok, 16424, Indonesia
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Universitas Indonesia, Kampus UI Depok, 16424, Indonesia
| | - Wellyzar Sjamsuridzal
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Universitas Indonesia, Kampus UI Depok, 16424, Indonesia
- Center of Excellence for Indigenous Biological Resources-Genome Studies, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Universitas Indonesia, Kampus UI Depok, 16424, Indonesia
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Hatano M, Kinoshita N, Igarashi M, Nomoto A. Actinocrispum wychmicini gen. nov., sp. nov., a novel member of the family Pseudonocardiaceae, isolated from soil. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 2016; 66:4779-4784. [PMID: 27535579 DOI: 10.1099/ijsem.0.001429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
A novel actinomycete, designated MI503-A4T, was isolated from soil. Comparative analysis of 16S rRNA gene sequences indicated that MI503-A4T was phylogenetically related to members of the family Pseudonocardiaceae. The most closely related genus was Kibdelosporangium (95.7-96.2 % sequence similarity). Substrate mycelia were branched and pale yellow to pale yellowish-brown. Straight- to zigzag-shaped aerial mycelia were observed, but Sporangium-like structures were absent. The whole-cell hydrolysate contained meso-diaminopimelic acid. The muramic acid residues in the peptidoglycan were N-acetylated. Whole-cell sugars were rhamnose, ribose, arabinose and galactose (cell wall chemotype IV). The predominant menaquinone was MK-9(H4). A small amount of MK-8(H4) was also detected. The DNA G+C content was 70.3-71.1 mol%. Polar lipids contained diphosphatidylglycerol, phosphatidylethanolamine and hydroxyl-phosphatidylethanolamine. Cellular fatty acid analysis of MI503-A4T detected predominantly iso-C14 : 0 (11.5 %), iso-C15 : 0 (13.3 %) and iso-C16 : 0 (35.7 %). Phenotypic and phylogenetic characteristics differentiated MI503-A4T from members of all genera within the family Pseudonocardiaceae with validly published names. Therefore, MI503-A4T is proposed to be a representative of a novel species in a novel genus, Actinocrispum wychmicini gen. nov., sp. nov. The type strain of the type species is MI503-A4T (=NBRC 109632T=DSM 45934T).
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Affiliation(s)
- Masaki Hatano
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Institute of Microbial Chemistry (BIKAKEN), Microbial Chemistry Research Foundation, 3-14-23 Kamiosaki, Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo 141-0021, Japan
| | - Naoko Kinoshita
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Institute of Microbial Chemistry (BIKAKEN), Microbial Chemistry Research Foundation, 3-14-23 Kamiosaki, Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo 141-0021, Japan
| | - Masayuki Igarashi
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Institute of Microbial Chemistry (BIKAKEN), Microbial Chemistry Research Foundation, 3-14-23 Kamiosaki, Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo 141-0021, Japan
| | - Akio Nomoto
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Institute of Microbial Chemistry (BIKAKEN), Microbial Chemistry Research Foundation, 3-14-23 Kamiosaki, Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo 141-0021, Japan
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Zhang CF, Ai MJ, Wang JX, Liu SW, Zhao LL, Su J, Sun CH, Yu LY, Zhang YQ. Herbihabitans rhizosphaerae gen. nov., sp. nov., a member of the family Pseudonocardiaceae isolated from rhizosphere soil of the herb Limonium sinense (Girard). Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 2016; 66:4156-4161. [PMID: 27470940 DOI: 10.1099/ijsem.0.001325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The taxonomic position of an actinobacterium, designated CPCC 204279T, which was isolated from a rhizosphere soil sample of the herb Limonium sinense collected from Xinjiang Province, China, was established using a polyphasic approach. Whole-cell hydrolysates of strain CPCC 204279T contained galactose and arabinose as diagnostic sugars and meso-diaminopimelic acid as the diamino acid. The muramic acid residues in the peptidoglycan were N-acetylated. The predominant menaquinone was MK-9(H4). The phospholipids consisted of diphosphatidylglycerol, phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidylinositol and phosphatidylinositol mannosides. The major fatty acids were iso-C16 : 0, iso-C16 : 0 2-OH, C16 : 1ω9c, iso-C16 : 1 and C16 : 0. The genomic DNA G+C content was 73.2 mol%. Phylogenetic analysis based on 16S rRNA gene sequences revealed that strain CPCC 204279T should be placed in the family Pseudonocardiaceae, in which the strain formed a distinct lineage next to the genus Actinophytocola. Signature nucleotides in the 16S rRNA gene sequence showed that the strain contained the Pseudonocardiaceae family-specific 16S rRNA signature nucleotides and a genus-specific diagnostic nucleotide signature pattern. The combination of phylogenetic analysis and phenotypic characteristics supported the conclusion that strain CPCC 204279T represents a novel species of a new genus in the family Pseudonocardiaceae, for which the name Herbihabitans rhizosphaerae gen. nov., sp. nov. is proposed. Strain CPCC 204279T (=NBRC 111774T=DSM 101727T) is the type strain of the type species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chang-Feng Zhang
- Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100050, PR China
| | - Meng-Jie Ai
- Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100050, PR China
| | - Ju-Xian Wang
- Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100050, PR China
| | - Shao-Wei Liu
- Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100050, PR China
| | - Li-Li Zhao
- Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100050, PR China
| | - Jing Su
- Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100050, PR China
| | - Cheng-Hang Sun
- Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100050, PR China
| | - Li-Yan Yu
- Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100050, PR China
| | - Yu-Qin Zhang
- Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100050, PR China
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Qin S, Bai JL, Wang Y, Feng WW, Yuan B, Sun Y, Cao CL, Ju XY, Huang Y, Jiang JH. Tamaricihabitans halophyticus gen. nov., sp. nov., an endophytic actinomycete of the family Pseudonocardiaceae. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 2015; 65:4662-4668. [DOI: 10.1099/ijsem.0.000628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
A novel actinomycete strain, designated KLBMP 1356T, was isolated from the root of halophyte Tamarix chinensis Lour. collected from the coastal area of Jiangsu province, PR China. The isolate was characterized using a polyphasic approach. Comparative analysis of the 16S rRNA gene sequence indicated that strain KLBMP 1356T was phylogenetically related to members of the family Pseudonocardiaceae and formed a distinct monophyletic clade between the genera Amycolatopsis (93.1–94.7 % 16S rRNA gene sequence similarity), Prauserella (93.6–95.1 %) and Saccharomonospora (93.2–94.3 %). The isolate displayed long spore chains containing rod-shaped and smooth-surfaced spores. Strain KLBMP 1356T contained meso-diaminopimelic acid as the diagnostic diamino acid, and galactose, arabinose and glucose as the whole-cell sugars. The major menaquinone was MK-9(H4) and the fatty acid profile was characterized by the predominance of iso-C16 : 0, C17 : 1ω8c, C17 : 1ω6c and C17 : 0. The polar lipids comprised diphosphatidylglycerol, phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidylinositol, unknown aminophospholipids and an unknown glycolipid. Mycolic acids were not present. The G+C content of the genomic DNA was 67.2 mol%. On the basis of the evidence from this polyphasic study, strain KLBMP 1356T is considered to represent a novel species of a new genus in the family Pseudonocardiaceae, for which the name Tamaricihabitans halophyticus gen. nov., sp. nov. is proposed. The type strain of the type species is KLBMP 1356T ( = DSM 45765T = NBRC 109361T).
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheng Qin
- The Key Laboratory of Biotechnology for Medicinal Plant of Jiangsu Province, Jiangsu Normal University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, 221116, PR China
| | - Juan-Luan Bai
- The Key Laboratory of Biotechnology for Medicinal Plant of Jiangsu Province, Jiangsu Normal University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, 221116, PR China
| | - Yu Wang
- The Key Laboratory of Biotechnology for Medicinal Plant of Jiangsu Province, Jiangsu Normal University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, 221116, PR China
| | - Wei-Wei Feng
- The Key Laboratory of Biotechnology for Medicinal Plant of Jiangsu Province, Jiangsu Normal University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, 221116, PR China
| | - Bo Yuan
- The Key Laboratory of Biotechnology for Medicinal Plant of Jiangsu Province, Jiangsu Normal University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, 221116, PR China
| | - Yong Sun
- The Key Laboratory of Biotechnology for Medicinal Plant of Jiangsu Province, Jiangsu Normal University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, 221116, PR China
| | - Cheng Liang Cao
- The Key Laboratory of Biotechnology for Medicinal Plant of Jiangsu Province, Jiangsu Normal University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, 221116, PR China
| | - Xiu-Yun Ju
- The Key Laboratory of Biotechnology for Medicinal Plant of Jiangsu Province, Jiangsu Normal University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, 221116, PR China
| | - Ying Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Resources, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, PR China
| | - Ji-Hong Jiang
- The Key Laboratory of Biotechnology for Medicinal Plant of Jiangsu Province, Jiangsu Normal University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, 221116, PR China
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Shivlata L, Satyanarayana T. Thermophilic and alkaliphilic Actinobacteria: biology and potential applications. Front Microbiol 2015; 6:1014. [PMID: 26441937 PMCID: PMC4585250 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2015.01014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2015] [Accepted: 09/07/2015] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Microbes belonging to the phylum Actinobacteria are prolific sources of antibiotics, clinically useful bioactive compounds and industrially important enzymes. The focus of the current review is on the diversity and potential applications of thermophilic and alkaliphilic actinobacteria, which are highly diverse in their taxonomy and morphology with a variety of adaptations for surviving and thriving in hostile environments. The specific metabolic pathways in these actinobacteria are activated for elaborating pharmaceutically, agriculturally, and biotechnologically relevant biomolecules/bioactive compounds, which find multifarious applications.
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