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Giessler KS, Goehring LS, Jacob SI, Davis A, Esser MM, Lee Y, Zarski LM, Weber PSD, Hussey GS. Impact of the host immune response on the development of equine herpesvirus myeloencephalopathy in horses. J Gen Virol 2024; 105:001987. [PMID: 38767608 PMCID: PMC11170125 DOI: 10.1099/jgv.0.001987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2024] [Accepted: 04/25/2024] [Indexed: 05/22/2024] Open
Abstract
Herpesviruses establish a well-adapted balance with their host's immune system. Despite this co-evolutionary balance, infections can lead to severe disease including neurological disorders in their natural host. In horses, equine herpesvirus 1 (EHV-1) causes respiratory disease, abortions, neonatal foal death and myeloencephalopathy (EHM) in ~10 % of acute infections worldwide. Many aspects of EHM pathogenesis and protection from EHM are still poorly understood. However, it has been shown that the incidence of EHM increases to >70 % in female horses >20 years of age. In this study we used old mares as an experimental equine EHV-1 model of EHM to identify host-specific factors contributing to EHM. Following experimental infection with the neuropathogenic strain EHV-1 Ab4, old mares and yearling horses were studied for 21 days post-infection. Nasal viral shedding and cell-associated viremia were assessed by quantitative PCR. Cytokine/chemokine responses were evaluated in nasal secretions and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) by Luminex assay and in whole blood by quantitative real-time PCR. EHV-1-specific IgG sub-isotype responses were measured by ELISA. All young horses developed respiratory disease and a bi-phasic fever post-infection, but only 1/9 horses exhibited ataxia. In contrast, respiratory disease was absent in old mares, but all old mares developed EHM that resulted in euthanasia in 6/9 old mares. Old mares also presented significantly decreased nasal viral shedding but higher viremia coinciding with a single fever peak at the onset of viremia. According to clinical disease manifestation, horses were sorted into an EHM group (nine old horses and one young horse) and a non-EHM group (eight young horses) for assessment of host immune responses. Non-EHM horses showed an early upregulation of IFN-α (nasal secretions), IRF7/IRF9, IL-1β, CXCL10 and TBET (blood) in addition to an IFN-γ upregulation during viremia (blood). In contrast, IFN-α levels in nasal secretions of EHM horses were low and peak levels of IRF7, IRF9, CXCL10 and TGF-β (blood) coincided with viremia. Moreover, EHM horses showed significantly higher IL-10 levels in nasal secretions, peripheral blood mononuclear cells and CSF and higher serum IgG3/5 antibody titres compared to non-EHM horses. These results suggest that protection from EHM depends on timely induction of type 1 IFN and upregulation cytokines and chemokines that are representative of cellular immunity. In contrast, induction of regulatory or TH-2 type immunity appeared to correlate with an increased risk for EHM. It is likely that future vaccine development for protection from EHM must target shifting this 'at-risk' immunophenotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- K. S. Giessler
- Department of Pathobiology & Diagnostic Investigation, College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
- Bavarian Health and Food Safety Authority, Oberschleissheim, Germany
| | - L. S. Goehring
- MH Gluck Equine Research Center, College of Agriculture, Food & Environment, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - S. I. Jacob
- Department of Pathobiology & Diagnostic Investigation, College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
| | - Allison Davis
- Department of Pathobiology & Diagnostic Investigation, College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
| | - M. M. Esser
- Department of Pathobiology & Diagnostic Investigation, College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
| | - Y. Lee
- Pathology Core, Unit for Laboratory Animal Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - L. M. Zarski
- Department of Pathobiology & Diagnostic Investigation, College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
| | - P. S. D. Weber
- Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
| | - G. S. Hussey
- Department of Pathobiology & Diagnostic Investigation, College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
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Black JB, Frampton AR. Anti-inflammatory compounds reduce equine herpesvirus type 1 replication and cell-to-cell spread. Front Vet Sci 2023; 10:1165917. [PMID: 37275614 PMCID: PMC10235532 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2023.1165917] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2023] [Accepted: 04/24/2023] [Indexed: 06/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Equine herpesvirus type 1 (EHV-1) is a highly transmissible pathogen that leads to a variety of clinical disease outcomes in infected horses. A major sequela that can occur after an EHV-1 infection is a neurological disease termed equine herpesvirus myeloencephalopathy (EHM). Clinical manifestations of EHM include fever, ataxia, incontinence, and partial to full paralysis, which may ultimately lead to the euthanization of the infected horse. To develop an effective treatment strategy for EHM, it is critical that the specific virus-host interactions that lead to EHM be investigated so that safe and effective therapeutic interventions can be developed and delivered. In this study, we examined the ability of four non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), a steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (dexamethasone), a Rho-kinase (ROCK) inhibitor, and a JAK/STAT inhibitor (AG490) to reduce EHV-1 virus yields and cell-to-cell spread. We show that the NSAID, flunixin meglumine (FM), and the JAK/STAT inhibitor, AG490, significantly reduced virus yields in endothelial and epithelial cell lines, and this inhibition was similar for two neurologic and two non-neurologic EHV-1 strains. In addition to reducing virus yields, AG490 and FM also significantly reduced the ability of EHV-1 to spread laterally from cell to cell.
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Abstract
Although equine herpesvirus myeloencephalopathy (EHM) is a relatively uncommon manifestation of equine herpesvirus-1 (EHV-1) infection, it can cause devastating losses during outbreaks. Antemortem diagnosis of EHM relies mainly on the molecular detection of EHV-1 in nasal secretions and blood. Management of horses affected by EHM is aimed at supportive nursing and nutritional care, at reducing central nervous system inflammation and preventing thromboembolic sequelae. Horses exhibiting sudden and severe neurologic signs consistent with a diagnosis of EHM pose a definite risk to the surrounding horse population. Consequently, early intervention to prevent the spread of infection is required.
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Hussey GS, Giessler KS. Contribution of the immune response to the pathogenesis of equine herpesvirus-1 (EHV-1): Are there immune correlates that predict increased risk or protection from EHV-1 myeloencephalopathy? Vet J 2022; 282:105827. [PMID: 35405348 DOI: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2022.105827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2021] [Revised: 02/06/2022] [Accepted: 04/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Equine herpesvirus-1 (EHV-1) myeloencephalopathy (EHM) is a devastating consequence of EHV-1 infection that has significant economic consequences. However, clinical EHM is relatively rare and occurs in only approximately 10% of infected horses. While there is a positive correlation between the duration and magnitude of viremia and incidence of EHM, it is likely that a combination of host and viral factors determine whether EHM occurs. The identification of these factors is of high interest for the equine community and has been the topic of much research for vaccine development and to predict which horses might be most at risk for developing EHM. The aim of this review is to highlight host immunity contributions to EHM pathogenesis at different sites of EHV-1 infection to shed light on the different aspects and interdependence of the response to EHV-1 in the time course of infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gisela Soboll Hussey
- Department of Pathobiology and Diagnostic Investigation, College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing MI 48824, USA.
| | - Kim S Giessler
- Department of Pathobiology and Diagnostic Investigation, College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing MI 48824, USA
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Rozek W, Kwasnik M, Malinowska A, Stasiak K, Larska M, Rola J. Proteomic analysis of the secretome of equine herpesvirus-1 infected rabbit kidney cells. Res Vet Sci 2021; 140:134-141. [PMID: 34428631 DOI: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2021.08.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2021] [Revised: 07/30/2021] [Accepted: 08/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Herpesviruses are the main cause of abortions and respiratory or neurological disorders in horses. Various disease patterns are suspected to be associated with the A2254G point mutation in the DNA polymerase sequence (ORF30) of the herpesvirus genome, although the importance of this link is still under debate. Based on a label-free quantitative proteomic analysis, the differences in the secretion of some host proteins between rabbit kidney cells infected with A2254 and cells of the same line infected with G2254 equine herpesvirus 1 (EHV-1) strains were identified. In both groups, downregulation of proteins involved in insulin growth factor and extracellular matrix pathway regulation was observed. Among 12 proteins with increased secretion, 8 were regulated only in G2254 EHV-1 infection. Those were endoplasmic reticulum chaperones with calcium binding properties, related to unfolded protein response and mitochondria. It was presumed that the secretion of proteins such as calreticulin, Hspa5 or endoplasmin may contribute to the pathogenesis of EHV-1 infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wojciech Rozek
- Department of Virology, National Veterinary Research Institute, 24-100 Pulawy, Poland.
| | - Malgorzata Kwasnik
- Department of Virology, National Veterinary Research Institute, 24-100 Pulawy, Poland
| | - Agata Malinowska
- Environmental Laboratory of Mass Spectrometry, Polish Academy of Sciences, Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, 02-106 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Karol Stasiak
- Department of Virology, National Veterinary Research Institute, 24-100 Pulawy, Poland
| | - Magdalena Larska
- Department of Virology, National Veterinary Research Institute, 24-100 Pulawy, Poland
| | - Jerzy Rola
- Department of Virology, National Veterinary Research Institute, 24-100 Pulawy, Poland
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Zarski LM, Vaala WE, Barnett DC, Bain FT, Soboll Hussey G. A Live-Attenuated Equine Influenza Vaccine Stimulates Innate Immunity in Equine Respiratory Epithelial Cell Cultures That Could Provide Protection From Equine Herpesvirus 1. Front Vet Sci 2021; 8:674850. [PMID: 34179166 PMCID: PMC8224402 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2021.674850] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2021] [Accepted: 04/23/2021] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Equine herpesvirus 1 (EHV-1) ubiquitously infects horses worldwide and causes respiratory disease, abortion, and equine herpesvirus myeloencephalopathy. Protection against EHV-1 disease is elusive due to establishment of latency and immune-modulatory features of the virus. These include the modulation of interferons, cytokines, chemokines, antigen presentation, and cellular immunity. Because the modulation of immunity likely occurs at the site of first infection—the respiratory epithelium, we hypothesized that the mucosal influenza vaccine Flu Avert® I.N. (Flu Avert), which is known to stimulate strong antiviral responses, will enhance antiviral innate immunity, and that these responses would also provide protection from EHV-1 infection. To test our hypothesis, primary equine respiratory epithelial cells (ERECs) were treated with Flu Avert, and innate immunity was evaluated for 10 days following treatment. The timing of Flu Avert treatment was also evaluated for optimal effectiveness to reduce EHV-1 replication by modulating early immune responses to EHV-1. The induction of interferons, cytokine and chemokine mRNA expression, and protein secretion was evaluated by high-throughput qPCR and multiplex protein analysis. Intracellular and extracellular EHV-1 titers were determined by qPCR. Flu Avert treatment resulted in the modulation of IL-8, CCL2, and CXCL9 starting at days 5 and 6 post-treatment. Coinciding with the timing of optimal chemokine induction, our data also suggested the same timing for reduction of EHV-1 replication. In combination, our results suggest that Flu Avert may be effective at counteracting some of the immune-modulatory properties of EHV-1 at the airway epithelium and the peak for this response occurs 5–8 days post-Flu Avert treatment. Future in vivo studies are needed to investigate Flu Avert as a prophylactic in situations where EHV-1 exposure may occur.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lila M Zarski
- Department of Pathobiology and Diagnostic Investigation, College of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinary Medical Center, East Lansing, MI, United States
| | | | | | | | - Gisela Soboll Hussey
- Department of Pathobiology and Diagnostic Investigation, College of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinary Medical Center, East Lansing, MI, United States
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Laval K, Poelaert KCK, Van Cleemput J, Zhao J, Vandekerckhove AP, Gryspeerdt AC, Garré B, van der Meulen K, Baghi HB, Dubale HN, Zarak I, Van Crombrugge E, Nauwynck HJ. The Pathogenesis and Immune Evasive Mechanisms of Equine Herpesvirus Type 1. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:662686. [PMID: 33746936 PMCID: PMC7970122 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.662686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2021] [Accepted: 02/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Equine herpesvirus type 1 (EHV-1) is an alphaherpesvirus related to pseudorabies virus (PRV) and varicella-zoster virus (VZV). This virus is one of the major pathogens affecting horses worldwide. EHV-1 is responsible for respiratory disorders, abortion, neonatal foal death and equine herpes myeloencephalopathy (EHM). Over the last decade, EHV-1 has received growing attention due to the frequent outbreaks of abortions and/or EHM causing serious economical losses to the horse industry worldwide. To date, there are no effective antiviral drugs and current vaccines do not provide full protection against EHV-1-associated diseases. Therefore, there is an urgent need to gain a better understanding of the pathogenesis of EHV-1 in order to develop effective therapies. The main objective of this review is to provide state-of-the-art information on the pathogenesis of EHV-1. We also highlight recent findings on EHV-1 immune evasive strategies at the level of the upper respiratory tract, blood circulation and endothelium of target organs allowing the virus to disseminate undetected in the host. Finally, we discuss novel approaches for drug development based on our current knowledge of the pathogenesis of EHV-1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathlyn Laval
- Department of Virology, Parasitology and Immunology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Katrien C K Poelaert
- Division of Virology, Department Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Jolien Van Cleemput
- HIV Cure Research Center, Department of Internal Medicine and Pediatrics, Ghent University and Ghent University Hospital, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Jing Zhao
- Shenzhen International Institute for Biomedical Research, Shenzhen, China
| | | | | | | | | | - Hossein B Baghi
- Infectious and Tropical Diseases Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Haileleul N Dubale
- College of Veterinary Medicine and Agriculture, Addis Ababa University, Bishoftu, Ethiopia
| | - Ines Zarak
- Department of Virology, Parasitology and Immunology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Eline Van Crombrugge
- Department of Virology, Parasitology and Immunology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Hans J Nauwynck
- Department of Virology, Parasitology and Immunology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
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Transcriptomic Profiling of Equine and Viral Genes in Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells in Horses during Equine Herpesvirus 1 Infection. Pathogens 2021; 10:pathogens10010043. [PMID: 33430330 PMCID: PMC7825769 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10010043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2020] [Revised: 01/04/2021] [Accepted: 01/05/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Equine herpesvirus 1 (EHV-1) affects horses worldwide and causes respiratory disease, abortions, and equine herpesvirus myeloencephalopathy (EHM). Following infection, a cell-associated viremia is established in the peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). This viremia is essential for transport of EHV-1 to secondary infection sites where subsequent immunopathology results in diseases such as abortion or EHM. Because of the central role of PBMCs in EHV-1 pathogenesis, our goal was to establish a gene expression analysis of host and equine herpesvirus genes during EHV-1 viremia using RNA sequencing. When comparing transcriptomes of PBMCs during peak viremia to those prior to EHV-1 infection, we found 51 differentially expressed equine genes (48 upregulated and 3 downregulated). After gene ontology analysis, processes such as the interferon defense response, response to chemokines, the complement protein activation cascade, cell adhesion, and coagulation were overrepresented during viremia. Additionally, transcripts for EHV-1, EHV-2, and EHV-5 were identified in pre- and post-EHV-1-infection samples. Looking at micro RNAs (miRNAs), 278 known equine miRNAs and 855 potentially novel equine miRNAs were identified in addition to 57 and 41 potentially novel miRNAs that mapped to the EHV-2 and EHV-5 genomes, respectively. Of those, 1 EHV-5 and 4 equine miRNAs were differentially expressed in PBMCs during viremia. In conclusion, this work expands our current knowledge about the role of PBMCs during EHV-1 viremia and will inform the focus on future experiments to identify host and viral factors that contribute to clinical EHM.
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