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Baker E, Ponder J, Oberdorfer J, Spreitzer I, Bolden J, Marius M, Bonnevay T, Sullivan K. Barriers to the Use of Recombinant Bacterial Endotoxins Test Methods in Parenteral Drug, Vaccine and Device Safety Testing. Altern Lab Anim 2023; 51:401-410. [PMID: 37855095 DOI: 10.1177/02611929231204782] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2023]
Abstract
The Bacterial Endotoxins Test (BET) is a critical safety test that is used to detect bacterial endotoxins, which are the major contributor to fever-inducing contamination risks known as pyrogens. All parenteral therapies, including every lot of injected drugs, vaccines, medical devices, must be tested for pyrogens to ensure patient safety. Bacterial endotoxins test methods were developed as a highly sensitive detection method for bacterial endotoxins, after the discovery of a clotting cascade in horseshoe crab blood. However, horseshoe crab species are limited to some inshore coastal habitats along the Atlantic coast of the USA and others throughout Asia. Fully functional horseshoe crab clotting factors can be manufactured via recombinant protein production, and several BET methods featuring recombinant horseshoe crab proteins have now been developed for commercial use. Recombinant Bacterial Endotoxins Test (rBET) methods based on the use of recombinant Factor C (rFC) were established in the European Pharmacopoeia - however, these methods have not yet been granted compendial status in the United States Pharmacopoeia (USP). In order to facilitate dialogue between stakeholders, the Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine hosted two virtual roundtable discussions on the perceived barriers to the use of rBET methods for US FDA requirements. Stakeholders agreed that multiple rFC-based methods have been demonstrated to have suitable analytical performance, as described in ICH Q2 on the Validation of Analytical Procedures and USP <1225> on the Validation of Compendial Procedures. United States Pharmacopoeia compendial inclusion of the rFC-based and other rBET methods was favoured, in order to reduce the additional burdens created by a lack of global harmonisation on BET testing requirements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth Baker
- Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Jessica Ponder
- Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine, Washington, DC, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Kristie Sullivan
- Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine, Washington, DC, USA
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Bachtiar Z, Mustopa AZ, Astuti RI, Fauziyah F, Fatimah F, Rozirwan R, Wulandari TNM, Wijaya DP, Agustriani F, Arwansyah A, Irawan H, Mamangkey J. Production of codon-optimized Factor C fragment from Tachypleus gigas in the Pichia pastoris GS115 expression system for endotoxin detection. J Genet Eng Biotechnol 2023; 21:103. [PMID: 37847307 PMCID: PMC10581989 DOI: 10.1186/s43141-023-00557-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2023] [Accepted: 10/08/2023] [Indexed: 10/18/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Factor C (FC) is widely used as a standard material for endotoxin testing. It functions as a zymogenic serine protease and serve as a biosensor that detects lipopolysaccharides. Prior investigations involving molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulations of FC demonstrated an interaction between the C-type lectin domain (CLECT) and the ligand lipopolysaccharide (lipid A). In this study, our aim was to assess the stability of the interaction between fragment FC and the lipid A ligand using protein modeling approaches, molecular docking, molecular dynamics simulation, and gene construction into the pPIC9K expression vector. METHODS AND RESULTS The FC structure was modelled by online tools. In this case, both molecular docking and MD simulations were applied to identify the interaction between protein and ligand (lipid A) including its complex stability. The FC structure model using three modeling websites has varied values, according to a Ramachandran plot study. When compared to other models, AlphaFold server modeling produced the best Ramachandran findings, with residues in the most advantageous area at 88.3%, followed by ERRAT values at 89.83% and 3D Verify at 71.93%. From the docking simulation of FC fragments with three ligands including diphosphoryl lipid A, FC-Core lipid A, and Kdo2 lipid A can be an activator of FC protein by binding to receptor regions to form ligand-receptor complexes. MD simulations were performed on all three complexes to assess their stability in water solvents showing that all complexes were stable during the simulation. The optimization of recombinant protein expression in Pichia pastoris was conducted by assessing the OD value and protease activity. Induction was carried out using 1% (v/v) methanol in BMMY media at 30°C for 72 h. CONCLUSIONS Protein fragments of Factor C has been proven to detect endotoxins and serve as a potential biomarker. Molecular docking simulation and MD simulation were employed to study the complex formation of protein fragments FC with ligands. The expression of FC fragments was successfully achieved through heterologous expression. We propose optimizing the expression of FC fragments by inducing them with 1% methanol at 30°C and incubating them for 72 h. These optimized conditions are well-suited for upscaling the production of recombinant FC fragments using a bioreactor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zubaidi Bachtiar
- Post Graduate Program of Biotechnology, Bogor Agricultural University, Bogor, Indonesia
| | - Apon Zaenal Mustopa
- Research Center for Genetic Engineering, Research Organization for Life Sciences and Environment, National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN), KST Soekarno, Cibinong, Bogor 16911 Indonesia
| | - Rika Indri Astuti
- Department of Biology, IPB University, Bogor, West Java 16680 Indonesia
- Biotechnology Research Center, IPB University, Bogor, West Java Indonesia
| | - Fauziyah Fauziyah
- Marine Science Study Program, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Science, University of Sriwijaya, Palembang, Indonesia
| | - Fatimah Fatimah
- Research Center for Genetic Engineering, Research Organization for Life Sciences and Environment, National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN), KST Soekarno, Cibinong, Bogor 16911 Indonesia
| | - Rozirwan Rozirwan
- Marine Science Study Program, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Science, University of Sriwijaya, Palembang, Indonesia
| | - Tuah Nanda Merlia Wulandari
- Research Center for Conservation of Marine and Inland Water Resources, National Research and Innovation Agency, Cibinong, 16911 Indonesia
| | - Dina Permata Wijaya
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Science, Sriwijaya University, Indralaya, South Sumatera Indonesia
| | - Fitri Agustriani
- Marine Science Study Program, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Science, University of Sriwijaya, Palembang, Indonesia
| | - Arwansyah Arwansyah
- Department of Chemistry Education, Faculty of Teacher Training and Education, Tadulako University, Palu, Indonesia
| | - Herman Irawan
- Post Graduate Program of Biotechnology, Bogor Agricultural University, Bogor, Indonesia
- Research Center for Genetic Engineering, Research Organization for Life Sciences and Environment, National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN), KST Soekarno, Cibinong, Bogor 16911 Indonesia
| | - Jendri Mamangkey
- Research Center for Genetic Engineering, Research Organization for Life Sciences and Environment, National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN), KST Soekarno, Cibinong, Bogor 16911 Indonesia
- Department of Biology Education, Faculty of Education and Teacher Training, Universitas Kristen Indonesia, Jl. Mayjen Sutoyo No. 2, Cawang, Jakarta Timur 13630 Jakarta, Indonesia
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Sattar AA, Good CR, Saletes M, Brandão J, Jackson SK. Endotoxin as a Marker for Water Quality. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:16528. [PMID: 36554408 PMCID: PMC9778876 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph192416528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2022] [Revised: 12/02/2022] [Accepted: 12/07/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Water quality testing is vital to protect human health. Current testing relies mainly on culture-based detection of faecal indicator organisms such as Escherichia coli (E.coli). However, bacterial cultures are a slow process, taking 24-48 h and requiring specialised laboratories and trained personnel. Access to such laboratories is often sparse in developing countries and there are many fatalities deriving from poor water quality. Endotoxin is a molecular component of Gram-negative bacterial cell walls and can be used to detect their presence in drinking water. METHOD The current study used a novel assay (BacterisK) to rapidly detect endotoxin in various water samples and correlate the results with E. coli content measured by culture methods. The data generated by the BacterisK assay are presented as an 'endotoxin risk' (ER). RESULTS The ER values correlate with E. coli and thus endotoxin can be used as a marker of faecal contamination in water. Moreover, the BacterisK assay provides data in near real-time and can be used in situ allowing water quality testing at different spatial and temporal locations. CONCLUSION We suggest that BacterisK can be used as a convenient risk assessment tool to assess water quality where results are required quickly or access to laboratories is lacking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anas A. Sattar
- Molendotech Limited, Brixham Laboratory, Blackball Lane, Freshwater Quarry, Brixham TQ5 8BA, UK
| | - Christian R. Good
- Molendotech Limited, Brixham Laboratory, Blackball Lane, Freshwater Quarry, Brixham TQ5 8BA, UK
| | - Margaux Saletes
- Molendotech Limited, Brixham Laboratory, Blackball Lane, Freshwater Quarry, Brixham TQ5 8BA, UK
| | - João Brandão
- Department of Environmental Health, National Institute of Health Dr. Ricardo, Avenida Padre Cruz, 1649-016 Lisboa, Portugal
- Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies (CESAM), Department of Animal Biology, University of Lisboa, 1749-016 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Simon K. Jackson
- Molendotech Limited, Brixham Laboratory, Blackball Lane, Freshwater Quarry, Brixham TQ5 8BA, UK
- School of Biomedical Science, University of Plymouth, Drake Circus, Plymouth PL4 8AA, UK
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Jaglan AB, Anand T, Verma R, Vashisth M, Virmani N, Bera BC, Vaid RK, Tripathi BN. Tracking the phage trends: A comprehensive review of applications in therapy and food production. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:993990. [PMID: 36504807 PMCID: PMC9730251 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.993990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2022] [Accepted: 10/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
In the present scenario, the challenge of emerging antimicrobial resistance is affecting human health globally. The increasing incidences of multidrug-resistant infections have become harder to treat, causing high morbidity, and mortality, and are posing extensive financial loss. Limited discovery of new antibiotic molecules has further complicated the situation and has forced researchers to think and explore alternatives to antibiotics. This has led to the resurgence of the bacteriophages as an effective alternative as they have a proven history in the Eastern world where lytic bacteriophages have been used since their first implementation over a century ago. To help researchers and clinicians towards strengthening bacteriophages as a more effective, safe, and economical therapeutic alternative, the present review provides an elaborate narrative about the important aspects of bacteriophages. It abridges the prerequisite essential requirements of phage therapy, the role of phage biobank, and the details of immune responses reported while using bacteriophages in the clinical trials/compassionate grounds by examining the up-to-date case reports and their effects on the human gut microbiome. This review also discusses the potential of bacteriophages as a biocontrol agent against food-borne diseases in the food industry and aquaculture, in addition to clinical therapy. It finishes with a discussion of the major challenges, as well as phage therapy and phage-mediated biocontrols future prospects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anu Bala Jaglan
- Department of Zoology and Aquaculture, Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, India
| | - Taruna Anand
- ICAR – National Research Centre on Equines, Hisar, India,*Correspondence: Taruna Anand,
| | - Ravikant Verma
- Department of Zoology and Aquaculture, Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, India
| | - Medhavi Vashisth
- Department of Molecular Biology, Biotechnology, and Bioinformatics, Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, India
| | - Nitin Virmani
- ICAR – National Research Centre on Equines, Hisar, India
| | - B. C. Bera
- ICAR – National Research Centre on Equines, Hisar, India
| | - R. K. Vaid
- ICAR – National Research Centre on Equines, Hisar, India
| | - B. N. Tripathi
- Animal Science Division, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, Krishi Bhawan, New Delhi, India
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Zaric S, Strachan A, Kurushima Y, Dong A, McIlwaine C, Harrington Z, Nibali L, Foey A, Ide M. Evaluating clinical utility of subgingival and salivary endotoxin activity levels as periodontal biomarkers. FRONTIERS IN ORAL HEALTH 2022; 3:1029806. [DOI: 10.3389/froh.2022.1029806] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2022] [Accepted: 10/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
ObjectivesThe use of periodontal biomarkers for identification and monitoring of unique patient populations could foster better stratification of at-risk groups, increase access to treatment for those most in need, facilitate preventive measures and improve personalised care plans. The aim of this study was to examine the diagnostic and prognostic utility of oral lipopolysaccharides as bacterially-derived periodontal biomarkers.MethodsPeriodontal parameters were recorded, and saliva and subgingival plaque samples were collected at the beginning of the study from periodontally healthy volunteers and periodontitis patients, and three months after completion of conventional periodontal treatment in the periodontitis group. Endotoxin activity in the samples was measured using the recombinant factor C assay. Associations between clinical periodontal parameters and subgingival and salivary endotoxin activities were analysed using a multivariate regression model, while the ROC curve was applied to estimate the sensitivity, specificity and c-statistics for salivary and subgingival endotoxin activities as diagnostic biomarkers for periodontitis.ResultsSignificant correlations were found between subgingival endotoxin activities, probing pocket depth and periodontal diagnosis, which were independent from patients' age, gender and smoking status. In addition, subgingival endotoxin levels had high specificity and sensitivity in detecting periodontal health and disease (0.91 and 0.85 respectively). Salivary endotoxin activity was positively associated with periodontal diagnosis, mean probing pocket depth, percentages of sites over 4 mm and full mouth bleeding score. However, it was inferior in discriminating patients with stable periodontium from those with periodontitis (sensitivity = 0.69, specificity = 0.61) compared to subgingival endotoxin activity.ConclusionsSubgingival endotoxin activity has good diagnostic and prognostic values as a site-specific periodontal biomarker and is not influenced by the patient's age, gender or smoking status. In contrast, salivary endotoxin activity, as a patient-level biomarker, is dependent on patient's age, has poorer diagnostic and prognostic capability, but shows good correlations with disease susceptibility and both its extent and severity.
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Gauthier AE, Rotjan RD, Kagan JC. Lipopolysaccharide detection by the innate immune system may be an uncommon defence strategy used in nature. Open Biol 2022; 12:220146. [PMID: 36196535 PMCID: PMC9533005 DOI: 10.1098/rsob.220146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2022] [Accepted: 09/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Since the publication of the Janeway's Pattern Recognition hypothesis in 1989, study of pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) and their immuno-stimulatory activities has accelerated. Most studies in this area have been conducted in model organisms, which leaves many open questions about the universality of PAMP biology across living systems. Mammals have evolved multiple proteins that operate as receptors for the PAMP lipopolysaccharide (LPS) from Gram-negative bacteria, but LPS is not immuno-stimulatory in all eukaryotes. In this review, we examine the history of LPS as a PAMP in mammals, recent data on LPS structure and its ability to activate mammalian innate immune receptors, and how these activities compare across commonly studied eukaryotes. We discuss why LPS may have evolved to be immuno-stimulatory in some eukaryotes but not others and propose two hypotheses about the evolution of PAMP structure based on the ecology and environmental context of the organism in question. Understanding PAMP structures and stimulatory mechanisms across multi-cellular life will provide insights into the evolutionary origins of innate immunity and may lead to the discovery of new PAMP variations of scientific and therapeutic interest.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna E. Gauthier
- Division of Gastroenterology, Boston Children's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, 300 Longwood Avenue, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Program in Virology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Randi D. Rotjan
- Department of Biology, Boston University, 5 Cummington Mall, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Jonathan C. Kagan
- Division of Gastroenterology, Boston Children's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, 300 Longwood Avenue, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Harvard Medical School, and Boston Children's Hospital, Division of Immunology, Division of Gastroenterology, USA
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Vázquez R, Díez-Martínez R, Domingo-Calap P, García P, Gutiérrez D, Muniesa M, Ruiz-Ruigómez M, Sanjuán R, Tomás M, Tormo-Mas MÁ, García P. Essential Topics for the Regulatory Consideration of Phages as Clinically Valuable Therapeutic Agents: A Perspective from Spain. Microorganisms 2022; 10:microorganisms10040717. [PMID: 35456768 PMCID: PMC9025261 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms10040717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2022] [Revised: 03/22/2022] [Accepted: 03/24/2022] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Antibiotic resistance is one of the major challenges that humankind shall face in the short term. (Bacterio)phage therapy is a valuable therapeutic alternative to antibiotics and, although the concept is almost as old as the discovery of phages, its wide application was hindered in the West by the discovery and development of antibiotics in the mid-twentieth century. However, research on phage therapy is currently experiencing a renaissance due to the antimicrobial resistance problem. Some countries are already adopting new ad hoc regulations to favor the short-term implantation of phage therapy in clinical practice. In this regard, the Phage Therapy Work Group from FAGOMA (Spanish Network of Bacteriophages and Transducing Elements) recently contacted the Spanish Drugs and Medical Devices Agency (AEMPS) to promote the regulation of phage therapy in Spain. As a result, FAGOMA was asked to provide a general view on key issues regarding phage therapy legislation. This review comes as the culmination of the FAGOMA initiative and aims at appropriately informing the regulatory debate on phage therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberto Vázquez
- Department of Biotechnology, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium;
| | | | - Pilar Domingo-Calap
- Institute for Integrative Systems Biology, University of Valencia-CSIC, 46980 Paterna, Spain; (P.D.-C.); (R.S.)
| | - Pedro García
- Center for Biological Research Margarita Salas (CIB-CSIC) and Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Respiratorias (CIBERES), 28040 Madrid, Spain;
| | - Diana Gutiérrez
- Telum Therapeutics SL, 31110 Noáin, Spain; (R.D.-M.); (D.G.)
| | - Maite Muniesa
- Department of Genetics, Microbiology and Statistics, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain;
| | - María Ruiz-Ruigómez
- Internal Medicine, Infectious Diseases Unit, Hospital Universitario 12 de Octubre, 28041 Madrid, Spain;
| | - Rafael Sanjuán
- Institute for Integrative Systems Biology, University of Valencia-CSIC, 46980 Paterna, Spain; (P.D.-C.); (R.S.)
| | - María Tomás
- Department of Microbiology, Hospital Universitario de A Coruña (INIBIC-CHUAC, SERGAS), 15006 A Coruña, Spain;
- Study Group on Mechanisms of Action and Resistance to Antimicrobials (GEMARA) on behalf of the Spanish Society of Infectious Diseases and Clinical Microbiology (SEIMC), 28003 Madrid, Spain
- Spanish Network for Research in Infectious Diseases (REIPI), 41071 Sevilla, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red en Enfermedades Infecciosas (CIBERINFEC), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - María Ángeles Tormo-Mas
- Severe Infection Group, Hospital Universitari i Politècnic La Fe, Health Research Institute Hospital La Fe, IISLaFe, 46026 Valencia, Spain;
| | - Pilar García
- Dairy Research Institute of Asturias, IPLA-CSIC, 33300 Villaviciosa, Spain
- DairySafe Group, Health Research Institute of Asturias (ISPA), 33011 Oviedo, Spain
- Correspondence:
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Hannon G, Prina-Mello A. Endotoxin contamination of engineered nanomaterials: Overcoming the hurdles associated with endotoxin testing. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS-NANOMEDICINE AND NANOBIOTECHNOLOGY 2021; 13:e1738. [PMID: 34254460 DOI: 10.1002/wnan.1738] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2021] [Revised: 06/10/2021] [Accepted: 06/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Nanomaterials are highly susceptible to endotoxin contamination due their large surface-to-volume ratios and endotoxins propensity to associate readily to hydrophobic and cationic surfaces. Additionally, the stability of endotoxin ensures it cannot be removed efficiently through conventional sterilization techniques such as autoclaving and ionizing radiation. In recent times, the true significance of this hurdle has come to light with multiple reports from the United States Nanotechnology Characterization Laboratory, in particular, along with our own experiences of endotoxin testing from multiple Horizon 2020-funded projects which highlight the importance of this issue for the clinical translation of nanomaterials. Herein, we provide an overview on the topic of endotoxin contamination of nanomaterials intended for biomedical applications. This article is categorized under: Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Emerging Technologies Toxicology and Regulatory Issues in Nanomedicine > Regulatory and Policy Issues in Nanomedicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gary Hannon
- Nanomedicine and Molecular Imaging Group, Department of Clinical Medicine, Trinity Translational Medicine Institute, Dublin, Ireland.,Laboratory of Biological Characterization of Advanced Materials (LBCAM), Trinity Translational Medicine Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Adriele Prina-Mello
- Nanomedicine and Molecular Imaging Group, Department of Clinical Medicine, Trinity Translational Medicine Institute, Dublin, Ireland.,Laboratory of Biological Characterization of Advanced Materials (LBCAM), Trinity Translational Medicine Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland.,Advanced Materials and Bioengineering Research (AMBER) Centre, CRANN institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
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Tindall B, Demircioglu D, Uhlig T. Recombinant bacterial endotoxin testing: a proven solution. Biotechniques 2021; 70:290-300. [PMID: 33956506 DOI: 10.2144/btn-2020-0165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Testing of parenteral pharmaceuticals and medical devices for pyrogens (fever-inducing substances) is critical to patient safety. The original rabbit pyrogen test has largely been replaced by different bacterial endotoxin tests based on Limulus amebocyte lysate (LAL), sourced from the blood equivalent of horseshoe crabs after comparative studies to the rabbit pyrogen test. Since 2004 a bacterial endotoxin test based on recombinant factor C (rFC), the endotoxin sensor protein inside of LAL, has been used as an animal-free alternative to LAL. Likewise, numerous studies compared LAL and rFC. Here we describe the history of pyrogen and bacterial endotoxin testing and summarize the evidence presented by those studies. We demonstrate that rFC and LAL are equivalent and comparable.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Dogan Demircioglu
- Industry Healthcare, bioMérieux Germany GmbH, Nürtingen, 72622, Germany
| | - Thomas Uhlig
- Industry Healthcare, bioMérieux Germany GmbH, Nürtingen, 72622, Germany
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10
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Dubczak J, Reid N, Tsuchiya M. Evaluation of limulus amebocyte lysate and recombinant endotoxin alternative assays for an assessment of endotoxin detection specificity. Eur J Pharm Sci 2021; 159:105716. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2021.105716] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2020] [Revised: 01/04/2021] [Accepted: 01/10/2021] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Reichelt S, Boschke E, Reinhardt O, Walther T, Lenk F. Development of a Gold Nanoparticle-Based Colorimetric Sensor for Water for Injection At-Line Impurity Testing. SLAS Technol 2020; 26:218-224. [PMID: 33375891 DOI: 10.1177/2472630320978187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The best-known rapid test using gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) is the human chorionic gonadotropin pregnancy test. AuNPs are a powerful tool in point-of-care testing because of their flexibility, modifiability, and visibility. Here, we report a method to detect impurities for at-line process control in water-for-injection (WFI) manufacturing through the example of endotoxins. If a distinct concentration of these amphipathic molecules, originated from gram-negative bacteria, enters the human body, it will result in septic shock, followed by organ failure and possibly death. Every fluid given parenterally is subject to strict regulatory requirements and therefore endotoxin testing. Through use of traditional methods like the limulus amebocyte lysate (LAL) test, it takes more than 2 h to complete. With the presented method, one-fifth of the sample volume is sufficient compared with the LAL test. Once the assay components have been mixed, the result can be interpreted visually within 2 min without the use of further instruments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saskia Reichelt
- Institute of Natural Materials Technology, Bioprocess Engineering Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Elke Boschke
- Institute of Natural Materials Technology, Bioprocess Engineering Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Olena Reinhardt
- Institute of Natural Materials Technology, Bioprocess Engineering Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Thomas Walther
- Institute of Natural Materials Technology, Bioprocess Engineering Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Felix Lenk
- Institute of Natural Materials Technology, Bioprocess Engineering Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
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Marius M, Vacher F, Bonnevay T. Comparison of bacterial endotoxin testing methods in purified pharmaceutical water matrices. Biologicals 2020; 67:49-55. [PMID: 32753293 DOI: 10.1016/j.biologicals.2020.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2020] [Revised: 06/30/2020] [Accepted: 07/02/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Current bacterial endotoxin testing systems can be labor-intensive and time-consuming, involving several manual pipetting steps. In our quality control laboratory, annually, we test about 15,000 samples of different grades of purified water, WFI and water samples taken to validate cleaning procedures for endotoxins. We are currently using the Kinetic-QCL™ assay which is a pharmacopeia method that provides reliable results. We compared this assay with another Limulus amebocyte lysate (LAL)-based assay (Endosafe®-MCS) and an alternative endpoint fluorescent recombinant Factor C (rFC) assay (ENDOZYME II GO®). Both these assays have been developed to reduce analyst preparation time. Our objective was to assess if they could increase the throughput of our testing while maintaining low rates of invalid results. The results demonstrated that the two most appropriate methods for rapid endotoxin detection in water are our current assay, K-QCL, and the rFC-based assay, ENDOZYME II GO. This latter assay was found to be less sensitive to interference than our current assay, particularly in cleaning validation water samples. It also showed better performance, accuracy, repeatability and had a shorter time-to-results. ENDOZYME II GO assay allows quick testing of large numbers of samples with reliable results and is a good alternative for conventional LAL assays.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marine Marius
- Analytical Sciences, Sanofi Pasteur, Marcy l'Etoile, 1541 Avenue Marcel Mérieux, 69280, France.
| | - Frédéric Vacher
- Analytical Sciences, Sanofi Pasteur, Marcy l'Etoile, 1541 Avenue Marcel Mérieux, 69280, France
| | - Thierry Bonnevay
- Analytical Sciences, Sanofi Pasteur, Marcy l'Etoile, 1541 Avenue Marcel Mérieux, 69280, France
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Comparison of LAL and rFC Assays-Participation in a Proficiency Test Program between 2014 and 2019. Microorganisms 2020; 8:microorganisms8030418. [PMID: 32188126 PMCID: PMC7143553 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms8030418] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2020] [Revised: 03/13/2020] [Accepted: 03/13/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Endotoxin (lipopolysaccharide) testing of drugs is routinely required in pharmaceutical industries. Suitable compendial assays are defined by national pharmacopoeias. At this time, Limulus Amoebocyte Lysate (LAL) assays are the gold standard. LAL is used in vitro for specific detection of endotoxin based on endotoxin-activated Factor C-mediated clotting cascade. However, alternative mediated pathways (e.g., Factor G), impurities, and further factors may influence test results. Some of these influencing factors are eliminated by recombinant Factor C (rFC) test, which represents a promising alternative. rFC not only enables highly specific endotoxin testing, as interfering Horseshoe Crab blood components are eliminated, but also offers ethical and ecological advantages compared to classical LAL assays. However, the question remains whether rFC-based tests are robust test systems, equivalent or superior to LAL and suitable for routine bacterial endotoxin testing. Pharmaceutical test users have validated the test successfully for their specific products, but no long-term studies have been published that combine testing of unknown samples, inter-laboratory, -operator, and -lot changes. Thus, it was of great interest to investigate rFC test performance in a routine setting within a proficiency test program set-up. Over a period of six years comparative endotoxin testing was conducted with one kinetic chromogenic LAL assay and two rFC-based assays. Results of this study demonstrate that both rFC-based assays were comparable to LAL. All results met acceptance criteria defined by compendial bacterial endotoxin testing. RFC-based methods generated results with even better endotoxin recovery rates compared to LAL. Therefore, rFC-based tests were found to represent reliable methods, as equivalent or even superior to LAL assays and suitable for routine bacterial endotoxin testing.
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14
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Sondhi P, Maruf MHU, Stine KJ. Nanomaterials for Biosensing Lipopolysaccharide. BIOSENSORS-BASEL 2019; 10:bios10010002. [PMID: 31877825 PMCID: PMC7168309 DOI: 10.3390/bios10010002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2019] [Revised: 12/16/2019] [Accepted: 12/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Lipopolysaccharides (LPS) are endotoxins, hazardous and toxic inflammatory stimulators released from the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria, and are the major cause of septic shock giving rise to millions of fatal illnesses worldwide. There is an urgent need to identify and detect these molecules selectively and rapidly. Pathogen detection has been done by traditional as well as biosensor-based methods. Nanomaterial based biosensors can assist in achieving these goals and have tremendous potential. The biosensing techniques developed are low-cost, easy to operate, and give a fast response. Due to extremely small size, large surface area, and scope for surface modification, nanomaterials have been used to target various biomolecules, including LPS. The sensing mechanism can be quite complex and involves the transformation of chemical interactions into amplified physical signals. Many different sorts of nanomaterials such as metal nanomaterials, magnetic nanomaterials, quantum dots, and others have been used for biosensing of LPS and have shown attractive results. This review considers the recent developments in the application of nanomaterials in sensing of LPS with emphasis given mainly to electrochemical and optical sensing.
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15
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Sattar AA, Abate W, Fejer G, Bradley G, Jackson SK. Evaluation of the proinflammatory effects of contaminated bathing water. JOURNAL OF TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH. PART A 2019; 82:1076-1087. [PMID: 31797748 DOI: 10.1080/15287394.2019.1694113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Contaminated marine bathing water has been reported to adversely affect human health. Our data demonstrated a correlation between total endotoxin (lipopolysaccharide; LPS) levels and degree of contamination of marine bathing waters. To assess the potential health implications of LPS present in marine bathing waters, the inflammation-inducing potency of water samples collected at different time points at multiple sampling sites were assessed using a cell culture-based assay. The numbers of fecal indicator bacteria (FIB) were also examined in the same samples. Water samples were used to stimulate two cell culture models: (1) a novel non-transformed continuously growing murine cell line Max Plank Institute (MPI) characteristic of alveolar macrophages and (2) human MonoMac 6 monocyte cell line. The inflammatory potential of the samples was assessed by measuring the release of inflammatory cytokines. The presence of high levels of LPS in contaminated bathing water led to induction of inflammatory response from our in vitro cell-based bioassays suggesting its potential health impact. This finding introduces an in vitro culture assay that reflects the level of LPS in water samples. These observations further promote previous finding that LPS is a reliable surrogate biomarker for fecal contamination of bathing water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anas A Sattar
- School of Biomedical and Healthcare Science, Plymouth University, Plymouth, UK
| | - Wondwossen Abate
- School of Biomedical and Healthcare Science, Plymouth University, Plymouth, UK
| | - Gyorgy Fejer
- School of Biomedical and Healthcare Science, Plymouth University, Plymouth, UK
| | - Graham Bradley
- School of Biomedical and Healthcare Science, Plymouth University, Plymouth, UK
| | - Simon K Jackson
- School of Biomedical and Healthcare Science, Plymouth University, Plymouth, UK
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16
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Mutti M, Corsini L. Robust Approaches for the Production of Active Ingredient and Drug Product for Human Phage Therapy. Front Microbiol 2019; 10:2289. [PMID: 31649636 PMCID: PMC6791927 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2019.02289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2019] [Accepted: 09/19/2019] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
To be successful, academic and commercial efforts to reintroduce phage therapy must ensure that only safe and efficacious products are used to treat patients. This raises a number of manufacturing, formulation, and delivery challenges. Since phages are biologics, robust manufacturing processes will be crucial to avoid unwanted variability in each step of the process. The quality standards themselves need to be developed, as patients are currently being treated with phages produced under quality standards ranging from cGMP for clinical trials in EMA and FDA regulated environments to no standards at all in some last resort treatments. In this short review, we will systematically review the literature covering technical issues and approaches to increase robustness at every step of the production process: the identity of the phage and bacterial production strains, the fermentation process and purification, the formulation of the drug product, the quality controls and the documentation standards themselves. We conclude that it is possible to control cost at the same time, which is critical to re-introduce phage therapy to western medicine.
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17
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Muroi M, Ogura N, Mizumura H, Aketagawa J, Oda T, Tanamoto KI. Application of a Recombinant Three-Factor Chromogenic Reagent, PyroSmart, for Bacterial Endotoxins Test Filed in the Pharmacopeias. Biol Pharm Bull 2019; 42:2024-2037. [PMID: 31588055 DOI: 10.1248/bpb.b19-00517] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Assays using lysate reagents prepared from horseshoe crab hemocyte extract (limulus amoebocyte lysate, LAL) are commonly and widely used to detect and measure endotoxin in parenteral drugs and medical devices. However, lysate reagents suffer from lot-to-lot variations leading to possible fluctuations in testing. Also, this continued usage of lysate reagents leads to the possible decline of the horseshoe crab population. Recently, a new recombinant chromogenic reagent, PyroSmart, consisting of three recombinant factors was introduced to the market. There are now three recombinant products; two with recombinant factor C reagents and PyroSmart with the complete recombinant LAL system. We evaluated the applicability of the reagent to the harmonized bacterial endotoxins test in the United States, European and Japanese pharmacopeias. The recombinant product showed equivalent potency of thirteen endotoxins from different bacterial strains to conventional chromogenic lysate reagents as long as their assay modes are identical. All analytical characteristics or assay parameters of the reagent satisfied the acceptance criteria which are set for the use for the bacterial endotoxins test filed in the pharmacopeias. All of 109 parenteral drugs tested can be measured with PyroSmart within respective maximum allowable dilutions. The lot-to-lot variation in recovery of endotoxin added in the parenteral drugs for PyroSmart was equal to or less than those of six limulus lysate reagents. In conclusion, the present study suggests that the recombinant reagent, PyroSmart, provide a good alternative to the LAL reagents with better lot-to-lot variation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masashi Muroi
- Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Musashino University
| | - Norihiko Ogura
- LAL Research, Central Research Laboratory, Seikagaku Corporation
| | - Hikaru Mizumura
- LAL Research, Central Research Laboratory, Seikagaku Corporation
| | - Jun Aketagawa
- Global Business Development & Marketing, Seikagaku Corporation
| | - Toshio Oda
- LAL Research, Central Research Laboratory, Seikagaku Corporation
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18
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Moon PD, Lee JS, Kim HY, Han NR, Kang I, Kim HM, Jeong HJ. Heat-treated Lactobacillus plantarum increases the immune responses through activation of natural killer cells and macrophages on in vivo and in vitro models. J Med Microbiol 2019; 68:467-474. [DOI: 10.1099/jmm.0.000938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Phil-Dong Moon
- 1 Department of Pharmacology, College of Korean Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 02447, Republic of Korea
- 2 Center for Converging Humanities, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 02447, Republic of Korea
| | - Jin Soo Lee
- 1 Department of Pharmacology, College of Korean Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 02447, Republic of Korea
| | - Hee-Yun Kim
- 1 Department of Pharmacology, College of Korean Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 02447, Republic of Korea
| | - Na-Ra Han
- 1 Department of Pharmacology, College of Korean Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 02447, Republic of Korea
| | - Inyeong Kang
- 3 Biogenicskorea Co., Ltd., Seoul 06628, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyung-Min Kim
- 1 Department of Pharmacology, College of Korean Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 02447, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyun-Ja Jeong
- 4 Department of Food Science & Technology and Biochip Research Center, Hoseo University, Chungnam 31499, Republic of Korea
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Maloney T, Phelan R, Simmons N. Saving the horseshoe crab: A synthetic alternative to horseshoe crab blood for endotoxin detection. PLoS Biol 2018; 16:e2006607. [PMID: 30312293 PMCID: PMC6200278 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.2006607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Revised: 10/24/2018] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Horseshoe crabs have been integral to the safe production of vaccines and injectable medications for the past 40 years. The bleeding of live horseshoe crabs, a process that leaves thousands dead annually, is an ecologically unsustainable practice for all four species of horseshoe crab and the shorebirds that rely on their eggs as a primary food source during spring migration. Populations of both horseshoe crabs and shorebirds are in decline. This study confirms the efficacy of recombinant Factor C (rFC), a synthetic alternative that eliminates the need for animal products in endotoxin detection. Furthermore, our findings confirm that the biomedical industry can achieve a 90% reduction in the use of reagents derived from horseshoe crabs by using the synthetic alternative for the testing of water and other common materials used in the manufacturing process. This represents an extraordinary opportunity for the biomedical and pharmaceutical industries to significantly contribute to the conservation of horseshoe crabs and the birds that depend on them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tom Maloney
- Revive & Restore, Sausalito, California, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Ryan Phelan
- Revive & Restore, Sausalito, California, United States of America
| | - Naira Simmons
- Wilson Sonsini Goodrich & Rosati, San Francisco, California, United States of America
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