1
|
Platelet Endothelial Cell Adhesion Molecule 1 (CD31) Is Essential for Clostridium perfringens Beta-Toxin Mediated Cytotoxicity in Human Endothelial and Monocytic Cells. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13120893. [PMID: 34941730 PMCID: PMC8703487 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13120893] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2021] [Revised: 12/08/2021] [Accepted: 12/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Beta toxin (CPB) is a small hemolysin beta pore-forming toxin (β-PFT) produced by Clostridium perfringens type C. It plays a central role in the pathogenesis of necro-hemorrhagic enteritis in young animals and humans via targeting intestinal endothelial cells. We recently identified the membrane protein CD31 (PECAM-1) as the receptor for CPB on mouse endothelial cells. We now assess the role of CD31 in CPB cytotoxicity against human endothelial and monocytic cells using a CRISPR/Cas9 gene knockout and an antibody blocking approach. CD31 knockout human endothelial and monocytic cells were resistant to CPB and CPB oligomers only formed in CD31-expressing cells. CD31 knockout endothelial and monocytic cells could be selectively enriched out of a polyclonal cell population by exposing them to CPB. Moreover, antibody mediated blocking of the extracellular Ig6 domain of CD31 abolished CPB cytotoxicity and oligomer formation in endothelial and monocytic cells. In conclusion, this study confirms the role of CD31 as a receptor of CPB on human endothelial and monocytic cells. Specific interaction with the CD31 molecule can thus explain the cell type specificity of CPB observed in vitro and corresponds to in vivo observations in naturally diseased animals.
Collapse
|
2
|
Bruggisser J, Tarek B, Wyder M, Müller P, von Ballmoos C, Witz G, Enzmann G, Deutsch U, Engelhardt B, Posthaus H. CD31 (PECAM-1) Serves as the Endothelial Cell-Specific Receptor of Clostridium perfringens β-Toxin. Cell Host Microbe 2020; 28:69-78.e6. [PMID: 32497498 DOI: 10.1016/j.chom.2020.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2020] [Revised: 03/31/2020] [Accepted: 05/05/2020] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Clostridium perfringens β-toxin (CPB) is a highly active β-pore-forming toxin (β-PFT) and the essential virulence factor for fatal, necro-hemorrhagic enteritis in animals and humans. The molecular mechanisms involved in CPB's action on its target, the endothelium of small intestinal vessels, are poorly understood. Here, we identify platelet endothelial cell adhesion molecule-1 (CD31 or PECAM-1) as the specific membrane receptor for CPB on endothelial cells. CD31 expression corresponds with the cell-type specificity of CPB, and it is essential for toxicity in cultured cells and mice. Ectopic CD31 expression renders resistant cells and liposomes susceptible to CPB-induced membrane damage. Moreover, the extracellular Ig6 domain of mouse, human, and porcine CD31 is essential for the interaction with CPB. Hence, our results explain the cell-type specificity of CPB in vitro and in the natural disease caused by C. perfringens type C.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Julia Bruggisser
- Institute of Animal Pathology, Department of Infectious Diseases and Pathobiology, Vetsuisse-Faculty, University of Bern, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Basma Tarek
- Institute of Animal Pathology, Department of Infectious Diseases and Pathobiology, Vetsuisse-Faculty, University of Bern, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Marianne Wyder
- Institute of Animal Pathology, Department of Infectious Diseases and Pathobiology, Vetsuisse-Faculty, University of Bern, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Philipp Müller
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Bern, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Christoph von Ballmoos
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Bern, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Guillaume Witz
- Microscopy Imaging Center (MIC) University of Bern, 3012 Bern, Switzerland; Science IT Support (ScITS), Mathematical Institute, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Gaby Enzmann
- Theodor Kocher Institute, Faculty of Medicine, University of Bern, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Urban Deutsch
- Theodor Kocher Institute, Faculty of Medicine, University of Bern, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Britta Engelhardt
- Theodor Kocher Institute, Faculty of Medicine, University of Bern, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Horst Posthaus
- Institute of Animal Pathology, Department of Infectious Diseases and Pathobiology, Vetsuisse-Faculty, University of Bern, 3012 Bern, Switzerland; COMPATH, Vetsuisse-Faculty & Faculty of Medicine, University of Bern, 3012 Bern, Switzerland.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Zaragoza NE, Orellana CA, Moonen GA, Moutafis G, Marcellin E. Vaccine Production to Protect Animals Against Pathogenic Clostridia. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:E525. [PMID: 31514424 PMCID: PMC6783934 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11090525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2019] [Revised: 08/26/2019] [Accepted: 08/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Clostridium is a broad genus of anaerobic, spore-forming, rod-shaped, Gram-positive bacteria that can be found in different environments all around the world. The genus includes human and animal pathogens that produce potent exotoxins that cause rapid and potentially fatal diseases responsible for countless human casualties and billion-dollar annual loss to the agricultural sector. Diseases include botulism, tetanus, enterotoxemia, gas gangrene, necrotic enteritis, pseudomembranous colitis, blackleg, and black disease, which are caused by pathogenic Clostridium. Due to their ability to sporulate, they cannot be eradicated from the environment. As such, immunization with toxoid or bacterin-toxoid vaccines is the only protective method against infection. Toxins recovered from Clostridium cultures are inactivated to form toxoids, which are then formulated into multivalent vaccines. This review discusses the toxins, diseases, and toxoid production processes of the most common pathogenic Clostridium species, including Clostridiumbotulinum, Clostridiumtetani, Clostridiumperfringens, Clostridiumchauvoei, Clostridiumsepticum, Clostridiumnovyi and Clostridiumhemolyticum.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas E. Zaragoza
- Australian Institute for Bioengineering and Nanotechnology (AIBN), The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia; (N.E.Z.); (C.A.O.)
| | - Camila A. Orellana
- Australian Institute for Bioengineering and Nanotechnology (AIBN), The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia; (N.E.Z.); (C.A.O.)
| | - Glenn A. Moonen
- Zoetis, 45 Poplar Road, Parkville VIC 3052, Australia; (G.A.M.); (G.M.)
| | - George Moutafis
- Zoetis, 45 Poplar Road, Parkville VIC 3052, Australia; (G.A.M.); (G.M.)
| | - Esteban Marcellin
- Australian Institute for Bioengineering and Nanotechnology (AIBN), The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia; (N.E.Z.); (C.A.O.)
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
|
5
|
Mechanisms of Action and Cell Death Associated with Clostridium perfringens Toxins. Toxins (Basel) 2018; 10:toxins10050212. [PMID: 29786671 PMCID: PMC5983268 DOI: 10.3390/toxins10050212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 114] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2018] [Revised: 05/18/2018] [Accepted: 05/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Clostridium perfringens uses its large arsenal of protein toxins to produce histotoxic, neurologic and intestinal infections in humans and animals. The major toxins involved in diseases are alpha (CPA), beta (CPB), epsilon (ETX), iota (ITX), enterotoxin (CPE), and necrotic B-like (NetB) toxins. CPA is the main virulence factor involved in gas gangrene in humans, whereas its role in animal diseases is limited and controversial. CPB is responsible for necrotizing enteritis and enterotoxemia, mostly in neonatal individuals of many animal species, including humans. ETX is the main toxin involved in enterotoxemia of sheep and goats. ITX has been implicated in cases of enteritis in rabbits and other animal species; however, its specific role in causing disease has not been proved. CPE is responsible for human food-poisoning and non-foodborne C. perfringens-mediated diarrhea. NetB is the cause of necrotic enteritis in chickens. In most cases, host–toxin interaction starts on the plasma membrane of target cells via specific receptors, resulting in the activation of intracellular pathways with a variety of effects, commonly including cell death. In general, the molecular mechanisms of cell death associated with C. perfringens toxins involve features of apoptosis, necrosis and/or necroptosis.
Collapse
|
6
|
Effect of Clostridium perfringens β-Toxin on Platelets. Toxins (Basel) 2017; 9:toxins9100336. [PMID: 29064418 PMCID: PMC5666382 DOI: 10.3390/toxins9100336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2017] [Revised: 10/19/2017] [Accepted: 10/20/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Clostridium perfringensβ-toxin (CPB) is the major virulence factor of C.perfringens type C causing a hemorrhagic enteritis in animals and humans. In experimentally infected pigs, endothelial binding of CPB was shown to be associated with early vascular lesions and hemorrhage but without obvious thrombosis of affected vessels, suggesting altered hemostasis in the early phase of the disease. The objective of the present study was to investigate the effect of CPB on platelets, with respect to primary hemostasis. Our results demonstrate that CPB binds to porcine and human platelets and forms oligomers resulting in a time- and dose-dependent cell death. Platelets showed rapid ultrastructural changes, significantly decreased aggregation and could no longer be activated by thrombin. This indicates that CPB affects the physiological function of platelets and counteracts primary hemostasis. Our results add platelets to the list of target cells of CPB and extend the current hypothesis of its role in the pathogenesis of C. perfringens type C enteritis.
Collapse
|
7
|
Jeong D, Kim DH, Kang IB, Chon JW, Kim H, Om AS, Lee JY, Moon JS, Oh DH, Seo KH. Prevalence and toxin type of Clostridium perfringens in beef from four different types of meat markets in Seoul, Korea. Food Sci Biotechnol 2017; 26:545-548. [PMID: 30263577 PMCID: PMC6049433 DOI: 10.1007/s10068-017-0075-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2016] [Revised: 01/20/2017] [Accepted: 01/20/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Beef is the primary source of foodborne poisoning caused by Clostridium perfringens. We investigated the prevalence of C. perfringens in retail beef from four different types of meat markets in Seoul using a standard culture method and real-time PCR assay. From June to September 2015, 82 beef samples were collected from 6 department stores (n=12), 14 butcher shops (n=28), 16 traditional markets (n=32), and 5 supermarkets (n=10). The culture method and real-time PCR assay revealed that 4 (4.88%) and 10 (12.20%) samples were positive for C. perfringens, respectively. The beef purchased from the department store showed the highest prevalence (16.67%), followed by the traditional market (3.12%), butcher shop (3.57%), and supermarket (0%) (p>0.05). All isolates were type A and negative for the enterotoxin gene. In conclusion, the real-time PCR assay used in this study could be useful for rapid detection and screening of C. perfringens in beef.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dana Jeong
- Center for One Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul, 05029 Korea
| | - Dong-Hyeon Kim
- Center for One Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul, 05029 Korea
| | - Il-Byeong Kang
- Center for One Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul, 05029 Korea
| | - Jung-Whan Chon
- Present Address: Division of Microbiology, National Center for Toxicological Research, US Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR 72079 USA
| | - Hyunsook Kim
- Department of Food & Nutrition, College of Human Ecology, Hanyang University, Seoul, 04763 Korea
| | - Ae-Son Om
- Department of Food & Nutrition, College of Human Ecology, Hanyang University, Seoul, 04763 Korea
| | - Joo-Yeon Lee
- Korea HACCP Accreditation and Services, Seoul, 05248 Korea
| | - Jin-San Moon
- Veterinary Parmaceutical Management, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, Gimcheon, Gyeongbuk, 39660 Korea
| | - Deog-Hwan Oh
- Department of Food Science and Biotechnology, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, Gangwon, 24341 Korea
| | - Kun-Ho Seo
- Center for One Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul, 05029 Korea
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Nagahama M, Seike S, Shirai H, Takagishi T, Kobayashi K, Takehara M, Sakurai J. Role of P2X7 receptor in Clostridium perfringens beta-toxin-mediated cellular injury. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2015; 1850:2159-67. [PMID: 26299247 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2015.08.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2015] [Revised: 07/29/2015] [Accepted: 08/12/2015] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Clostridium perfringens beta-toxin is a pore-forming toxin (PFT) and an important agent of necrotic enteritis and enterotoxemia. We recently reported that beta-toxin strongly induced cell death in THP-1 cells via the formation of oligomers. We here describe that the P2X(7) receptor, which is an ATP receptor, interacts with beta-toxin. METHODS We tested the role of P2X(7) receptor in beta-toxin-induced toxicity using specific inhibitors, knockdown of receptor, expression of the receptor and interaction by dot-blot assay. The potency of P2X(7) receptor was further determined using an in vivo mouse model. RESULTS Selective P2X(7) receptor antagonists (oxidized ATP (o-ATP), oxidized ADP, and Brilliant Blue G (BBG)) inhibited beta-toxin-induced cytotoxicity in THP-1 cells. o-ATP also blocked the binding of beta-toxin to cells. The P2X(7) receptor and beta-toxin oligomer were localized in the lipid rafts of THP-1 cells. siRNA for the P2X(7) receptor inhibited toxin-induced cytotoxicity and binding of the toxin. In contrast, the siRNA knockdown of P2Y(2) or P2Y(6) had no effect on beta-toxin-induced cytotoxicity. The addition of beta-toxin to P2X(7)-transfected HEK-293 cells resulted in binding of beta-toxin oligomer. Moreover, beta-toxin specifically bound to immobilized P2X(7) receptors in vitro and colocalized with the P2X(7) receptor on the THP-1 cell surface. Furthermore, beta-toxin-induced lethality in mice was blocked by the preadministration of BBG. CONCLUSIONS The results of this study indicate that the P2X(7) receptor plays a role in beta-toxin-mediated cellular injury. GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE P2X(7) receptor is a potential target for the treatment of C. perfringens type C infection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Masahiro Nagahama
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokushima Bunri University, Yamashiro-cho, Tokushima 770-8514, Japan.
| | - Soshi Seike
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokushima Bunri University, Yamashiro-cho, Tokushima 770-8514, Japan
| | - Hidenori Shirai
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokushima Bunri University, Yamashiro-cho, Tokushima 770-8514, Japan
| | - Teruhisa Takagishi
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokushima Bunri University, Yamashiro-cho, Tokushima 770-8514, Japan
| | - Keiko Kobayashi
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokushima Bunri University, Yamashiro-cho, Tokushima 770-8514, Japan
| | - Masaya Takehara
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokushima Bunri University, Yamashiro-cho, Tokushima 770-8514, Japan
| | - Jun Sakurai
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokushima Bunri University, Yamashiro-cho, Tokushima 770-8514, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Roos S, Wyder M, Candi A, Regenscheit N, Nathues C, van Immerseel F, Posthaus H. Binding studies on isolated porcine small intestinal mucosa and in vitro toxicity studies reveal lack of effect of C. perfringens beta-toxin on the porcine intestinal epithelium. Toxins (Basel) 2015; 7:1235-52. [PMID: 25860161 PMCID: PMC4417965 DOI: 10.3390/toxins7041235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2015] [Revised: 03/18/2015] [Accepted: 03/31/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Beta-toxin (CPB) is the essential virulence factor of C. perfringens type C causing necrotizing enteritis (NE) in different hosts. Using a pig infection model, we showed that CPB targets small intestinal endothelial cells. Its effect on the porcine intestinal epithelium, however, could not be adequately investigated by this approach. Using porcine neonatal jejunal explants and cryosections, we performed in situ binding studies with CPB. We confirmed binding of CPB to endothelial but could not detect binding to epithelial cells. In contrast, the intact epithelial layer inhibited CPB penetration into deeper intestinal layers. CPB failed to induce cytopathic effects in cultured polarized porcine intestinal epithelial cells (IPEC-J2) and primary jejunal epithelial cells. C. perfringens type C culture supernatants were toxic for cell cultures. This, however, was not inhibited by CPB neutralization. Our results show that, in the porcine small intestine, CPB primarily targets endothelial cells and does not bind to epithelial cells. An intact intestinal epithelial layer prevents CPB diffusion into underlying tissue and CPB alone does not cause direct damage to intestinal epithelial cells. Additional factors might be involved in the early epithelial damage which is needed for CPB diffusion towards its endothelial targets in the small intestine.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Simone Roos
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Pathobiology, Institute of Animal Pathology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bern 3012, Switzerland.
| | - Marianne Wyder
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Pathobiology, Institute of Animal Pathology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bern 3012, Switzerland.
| | - Ahmet Candi
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Pathobiology, Institute of Animal Pathology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bern 3012, Switzerland.
| | - Nadine Regenscheit
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Pathobiology, Institute of Animal Pathology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bern 3012, Switzerland.
| | - Christina Nathues
- Veterinary Public Health Institute, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bern 3012, Switzerland.
| | - Filip van Immerseel
- Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Medicine, Ghent University, Ghent 9000, Belgium.
| | - Horst Posthaus
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Pathobiology, Institute of Animal Pathology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bern 3012, Switzerland.
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Uzal FA, McClane BA, Cheung JK, Theoret J, Garcia JP, Moore RJ, Rood JI. Animal models to study the pathogenesis of human and animal Clostridium perfringens infections. Vet Microbiol 2015; 179:23-33. [PMID: 25770894 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2015.02.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2015] [Revised: 02/11/2015] [Accepted: 02/15/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The most common animal models used to study Clostridium perfringens infections in humans and animals are reviewed here. The classical C. perfringens-mediated histotoxic disease of humans is clostridial myonecrosis or gas gangrene and the use of a mouse myonecrosis model coupled with genetic studies has contributed greatly to our understanding of disease pathogenesis. Similarly, the use of a chicken model has enhanced our understanding of type A-mediated necrotic enteritis in poultry and has led to the identification of NetB as the primary toxin involved in disease. C. perfringens type A food poisoning is a highly prevalent bacterial illness in the USA and elsewhere. Rabbits and mice are the species most commonly used to study the action of enterotoxin, the causative toxin. Other animal models used to study the effect of this toxin are rats, non-human primates, sheep and cattle. In rabbits and mice, CPE produces severe necrosis of the small intestinal epithelium along with fluid accumulation. C. perfringens type D infection has been studied by inoculating epsilon toxin (ETX) intravenously into mice, rats, sheep, goats and cattle, and by intraduodenal inoculation of whole cultures of this microorganism in mice, sheep, goats and cattle. Molecular Koch's postulates have been fulfilled for enterotoxigenic C. perfringens type A in rabbits and mice, for C. perfringens type A necrotic enteritis and gas gangrene in chickens and mice, respectively, for C. perfringens type C in mice, rabbits and goats, and for C. perfringens type D in mice, sheep and goats.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Francisco A Uzal
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory System, San Bernardino Branch, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, San Bernardino, CA 92408, USA.
| | - Bruce A McClane
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA
| | - Jackie K Cheung
- Department of Microbiology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - James Theoret
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA
| | - Jorge P Garcia
- Department of Large Animal Medicine, School of Veterinary Medicine, National University of the Center of Buenos Aires Province, Tandil, Argentina
| | - Robert J Moore
- Department of Microbiology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia; School of Applied Sciences, RMIT University, Bundoora, Victoria, Australia; Poultry Cooperative Research Centre, Armidale, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Julian I Rood
- Department of Microbiology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia; Poultry Cooperative Research Centre, Armidale, New South Wales, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Nagahama M, Ochi S, Oda M, Miyamoto K, Takehara M, Kobayashi K. Recent insights into Clostridium perfringens beta-toxin. Toxins (Basel) 2015; 7:396-406. [PMID: 25654787 PMCID: PMC4344631 DOI: 10.3390/toxins7020396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2014] [Revised: 01/15/2015] [Accepted: 01/29/2015] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Clostridium perfringens beta-toxin is a key mediator of necrotizing enterocolitis and enterotoxemia. It is a pore-forming toxin (PFT) that exerts cytotoxic effect. Experimental investigation using piglet and rabbit intestinal loop models and a mouse infection model apparently showed that beta-toxin is the important pathogenic factor of the organisms. The toxin caused the swelling and disruption of HL-60 cells and formed a functional pore in the lipid raft microdomains of sensitive cells. These findings represent significant progress in the characterization of the toxin with knowledge on its biological features, mechanism of action and structure-function having been accumulated. Our aims here are to review the current progresses in our comprehension of the virulence of C. perfringens type C and the character, biological feature and structure-function of beta-toxin.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Masahiro Nagahama
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokushima Bunri University, Yamashiro-cho 770-8514, Tokushima, Japan.
| | - Sadayuki Ochi
- Department of Microbiology, Fujita Health University School of Medicine, Toyoake 470-1192, Aichi, Japan.
| | - Masataka Oda
- Division of Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Niigata University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Gakkocho-dori, Chuo-ku 951-8514, Niigata, Japan.
| | - Kazuaki Miyamoto
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokushima Bunri University, Yamashiro-cho 770-8514, Tokushima, Japan.
| | - Masaya Takehara
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokushima Bunri University, Yamashiro-cho 770-8514, Tokushima, Japan.
| | - Keiko Kobayashi
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokushima Bunri University, Yamashiro-cho 770-8514, Tokushima, Japan.
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Identification and characterization of Clostridium perfringens beta toxin variants with differing trypsin sensitivity and in vitro cytotoxicity activity. Infect Immun 2015; 83:1477-86. [PMID: 25643999 DOI: 10.1128/iai.02864-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
By producing toxins, Clostridium perfringens causes devastating diseases of both humans and animals. C. perfringens beta toxin (CPB) is the major virulence determinant for type C infections and is also implicated in type B infections, but little is known about the CPB structure-function relationship. Amino acid sequence comparisons of the CPBs made by 8 randomly selected isolates identified two natural variant toxins with four conserved amino acid changes, including a switch of E to K at position 168 (E168K) that introduces a potential trypsin cleavage site into the CPB protein of strain JGS1076. To investigate whether this potential trypsin cleavage site affects sensitivity to trypsin, a primary host defense against this toxin, the two CPB variants were assayed for their trypsin sensitivity. The results demonstrated a significant difference in trypsin sensitivity, which was linked to the E168K switch by using site-directed recombinant CPB (rCPB) mutants. The natural CPB variants also displayed significant differences in their cytotoxicity to human endothelial cells. This cytotoxicity difference was mainly attributable to increased host cell binding rather than the ability to oligomerize or form functional pores. Using rCPB site-directed mutants, differences in cytotoxicity and host cell binding were linked to an A300V amino acid substitution in the strain JGS1076 CPB variant that possessed more cytotoxic activity. Mapping of sequence variations on a CPB structure modeled using related toxins suggests that the E168K substitution is surface localized and so can interact with trypsin and that the A300V substitution is located in a putative binding domain of the CPB toxin.
Collapse
|
13
|
Clostridial pore-forming toxins: Powerful virulence factors. Anaerobe 2014; 30:220-38. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anaerobe.2014.05.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2014] [Revised: 04/16/2014] [Accepted: 05/25/2014] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
|
14
|
The p38 MAPK and JNK pathways protect host cells against Clostridium perfringens beta-toxin. Infect Immun 2013; 81:3703-8. [PMID: 23876806 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00579-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Clostridium perfringens beta-toxin is an important agent of necrotic enteritis and enterotoxemia. Beta-toxin is a pore-forming toxin (PFT) that causes cytotoxicity. Two mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways (p38 and c-Jun N-terminal kinase [JNK]-like) provide cellular defense against various stresses. To investigate the role of the MAPK pathways in the toxic effect of beta-toxin, we examined cytotoxicity in five cell lines. Beta-toxin induced cytotoxicity in cells in the following order: THP-1 = U937 > HL-60 > BALL-1 = MOLT-4. In THP-1 cells, beta-toxin formed oligomers on lipid rafts in membranes and induced the efflux of K(+) from THP-1 cells in a dose- and time-dependent manner. The phosphorylation of p38 MAPK and JNK occurred in response to an attack by beta-toxin. p38 MAPK (SB203580) and JNK (SP600125) inhibitors enhanced toxin-induced cell death. Incubation in K(+)-free medium intensified p38 MAPK activation and cell death induced by the toxin, while incubation in K(+)-high medium prevented those effects. While streptolysin O (SLO) reportedly activates p38 MAPK via reactive oxygen species (ROS), we showed that this pathway did not play a major role in p38 phosphorylation in beta-toxin-treated cells. Therefore, we propose that beta-toxin induces activation of the MAPK pathway to promote host cell survival.
Collapse
|
15
|
Verherstraeten S, Goossens E, Valgaeren B, Pardon B, Timbermont L, Vermeulen K, Schauvliege S, Haesebrouck F, Ducatelle R, Deprez P, Van Immerseel F. The synergistic necrohemorrhagic action of Clostridium perfringens perfringolysin and alpha toxin in the bovine intestine and against bovine endothelial cells. Vet Res 2013; 44:45. [PMID: 23782465 PMCID: PMC3722007 DOI: 10.1186/1297-9716-44-45] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2013] [Accepted: 06/07/2013] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Bovine necrohemorrhagic enteritis is a major cause of mortality in veal calves. Clostridium perfringens is considered as the causative agent, but there has been controversy on the toxins responsible for the disease. Recently, it has been demonstrated that a variety of C. perfringens type A strains can induce necrohemorrhagic lesions in a calf intestinal loop assay. These results put forward alpha toxin and perfringolysin as potential causative toxins, since both are produced by all C. perfringens type A strains. The importance of perfringolysin in the pathogenesis of bovine necrohemorrhagic enteritis has not been studied before. Therefore, the objective of the current study was to evaluate the role of perfringolysin in the development of necrohemorrhagic enteritis lesions in calves and its synergism with alpha toxin. A perfringolysin-deficient mutant, an alpha toxin-deficient mutant and a perfringolysin alpha toxin double mutant were less able to induce necrosis in a calf intestinal loop assay as compared to the wild-type strain. Only complementation with both toxins could restore the activity to that of the wild-type. In addition, perfringolysin and alpha toxin had a synergistic cytotoxic effect on bovine endothelial cells. This endothelial cell damage potentially explains why capillary hemorrhages are an initial step in the development of bovine necrohemorrhagic enteritis. Taken together, our results show that perfringolysin acts synergistically with alpha toxin in the development of necrohemorrhagic enteritis in a calf intestinal loop model and we hypothesize that both toxins act by targeting the endothelial cells.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stefanie Verherstraeten
- Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, Merelbeke B-9820, Belgium.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
16
|
Autheman D, Wyder M, Popoff M, D’Herde K, Christen S, Posthaus H. Clostridium perfringens beta-toxin induces necrostatin-inhibitable, calpain-dependent necrosis in primary porcine endothelial cells. PLoS One 2013; 8:e64644. [PMID: 23734212 PMCID: PMC3667183 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0064644] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2013] [Accepted: 04/17/2013] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Clostridium perfringens β-toxin (CPB) is a β-barrel pore-forming toxin and an essential virulence factor of C. perfringens type C strains, which cause fatal hemorrhagic enteritis in animals and humans. We have previously shown that CPB is bound to endothelial cells within the intestine of affected pigs and humans, and that CPB is highly toxic to primary porcine endothelial cells (pEC) in vitro. The objective of the present study was to investigate the type of cell death induced by CPB in these cells, and to study potential host cell mechanisms involved in this process. CPB rapidly induced lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release, propidium iodide uptake, ATP depletion, potassium efflux, a marked rise in intracellular calcium [Ca2+]i, release of high-mobility group protein B1 (HMGB1), and caused ultrastructural changes characteristic of necrotic cell death. Despite a certain level of caspase-3 activation, no appreciable DNA fragmentation was detected. CPB-induced LDH release and propidium iodide uptake were inhibited by necrostatin-1 and the two dissimilar calpain inhibitors PD150606 and calpeptin. Likewise, inhibition of potassium efflux, chelation of intracellular calcium and treatment of pEC with cyclosporin A also significantly inhibited CPB-induced LDH release. Our results demonstrate that rCPB primarily induces necrotic cell death in pEC, and that necrotic cell death is not merely a passive event caused by toxin-induced membrane disruption, but is propagated by host cell-dependent biochemical pathways activated by the rise in intracellular calcium and inhibitable by necrostatin-1, consistent with the emerging concept of programmed necrosis (“necroptosis”).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Delphine Autheman
- Institute of Infectious Diseases, Medical Faculty, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Marianne Wyder
- Institute of Animal Pathology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | | | - Katharina D’Herde
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Stephan Christen
- Institute of Infectious Diseases, Medical Faculty, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Horst Posthaus
- Institute of Animal Pathology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Hagiya H, Naito H, Sugiyama J, Nojima H, Hagioka S, Morimoto N. Necrotizing duodenitis caused by Clostridium perfringens type A in a Japanese young man. Intern Med 2012; 51:2973-6. [PMID: 23064579 DOI: 10.2169/internalmedicine.51.8407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
A 21-year-old Japanese man with a history of marked body weight loss over a short period of time died of necrotizing duodenitis caused by Clostridium perfringens (C. perfringens) type A. C. perfringens type A is considered to usually cause self-limiting gastroenteritis. Necrotizing enteritis sometimes occurs due to C. perfringens in developing countries; however, it is primarily caused by the type C strain and its site of onset is typically the jejunum or ileum. This is a rare case of necrotizing duodenitis caused by C. perfringens type A in a Japanese young man. Physicians need to be more aware of this emerging fatal disease in developed countries.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hideharu Hagiya
- Emergency Unit and Critical Care Center, Tsuyama Central Hospital, Japan.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
18
|
Susceptibility of primary human endothelial cells to C. perfringens beta-toxin suggesting similar pathogenesis in human and porcine necrotizing enteritis. Vet Microbiol 2011; 153:173-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2011.02.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2010] [Revised: 01/21/2011] [Accepted: 02/07/2011] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
|
19
|
Potential protective immunogenicity of recombinant Clostridium perfringens α–β2–β1 fusion toxin in mice, sows and cows. Vaccine 2011; 29:5459-66. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2011.05.059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2011] [Revised: 05/11/2011] [Accepted: 05/18/2011] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
|
20
|
Uzal FA, McClane BA. Recent progress in understanding the pathogenesis of Clostridium perfringens type C infections. Vet Microbiol 2011; 153:37-43. [PMID: 21420802 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2011.02.048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2010] [Revised: 02/16/2011] [Accepted: 02/21/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Clostridium perfringens type C causes necrotizing enteritis in humans and several other animal species. Type C isolates must produce at least beta toxin (CPB) and alpha toxin (CPA) and most strains produce several other toxins including perfringolysin O (PFO) and TpeL. However, current evidence indicates that CPB is the main virulence factor for type C infections. Most of this evidence is based upon the loss of virulence shown by isogenic type C CPB knock out mutants on cells, and also in rabbit intestinal loops and in mouse models. This virulence is regained when these mutants are complemented with the wild-type cpb gene. Many type C isolates respond to close contact with enterocyte-like Caco-2 cells by producing all toxins, except TpeL, much more rapidly than occurs during in vitro growth. This in vivo effect involves rapid transcriptional upregulation of the cpb, cpb2, pfoA and plc toxin genes. Rapid Caco-2 cell-induced upregulation of CPB and PFO production involves the VirS/VirR two-component system, since upregulated in vivo transcription of the pfoA and cpb genes was blocked by inactivating the virR gene and was reversible by complementation to restore VirR expression.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- F A Uzal
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory System, San Bernardino Branch, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, 105 W Central Ave, San Bernardino, CA 92408, USA.
| | | |
Collapse
|
21
|
Rapid cytopathic effects of Clostridium perfringens beta-toxin on porcine endothelial cells. Infect Immun 2010; 78:2966-73. [PMID: 20404076 DOI: 10.1128/iai.01284-09] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Clostridium perfringens type C isolates cause fatal, segmental necro-hemorrhagic enteritis in animals and humans. Typically, acute intestinal lesions result from extensive mucosal necrosis and hemorrhage in the proximal jejunum. These lesions are frequently accompanied by microvascular thrombosis in affected intestinal segments. In previous studies we demonstrated that there is endothelial localization of C. perfringens type C beta-toxin (CPB) in acute lesions of necrotizing enteritis. This led us to hypothesize that CPB contributes to vascular necrosis by directly damaging endothelial cells. By performing additional immunohistochemical studies using spontaneously diseased piglets, we confirmed that CPB binds to the endothelial lining of vessels showing early signs of thrombosis. To investigate whether CPB can disrupt the endothelium, we exposed primary porcine aortic endothelial cells to C. perfringens type C culture supernatants and recombinant CPB. Both treatments rapidly induced disruption of the actin cytoskeleton, cell border retraction, and cell shrinkage, leading to destruction of the endothelial monolayer in vitro. These effects were followed by cell death. Cytopathic and cytotoxic effects were inhibited by neutralization of CPB. Taken together, our results suggest that CPB-induced disruption of endothelial cells may contribute to the pathogenesis of C. perfringens type C enteritis.
Collapse
|