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Hongchao D, Ma L, Xu Z, Soteyome T, Yuan L, Yang Z, Jiao XA. Invited review: Role of Bacillus licheniformis in the dairy industry- friends or foes? J Dairy Sci 2024:S0022-0302(24)00904-4. [PMID: 38851582 DOI: 10.3168/jds.2024-24826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2024] [Accepted: 05/07/2024] [Indexed: 06/10/2024]
Abstract
Bacillus licheniformis is one of the major spore-forming bacteria with great genotypic diversity in raw milk, dairy ingredients, final dairy products, and is found throughout the dairy processing continuum. Though being widely used as a probiotic strain, this species also serves as a potential risk in the dairy industry based on its roles in foodborne illness and dairy spoilage. Biofilm formation of B. licheniformis in combined with the heat resistance of its spores, make it impossible to prevent the presence of B. licheniformis in final dairy products by traditional cleaning and disinfection procedures. Despite the extensive efforts on the identification of B. licheniformis from various dairy samples, no reviews have been reported on both hazard and benefits of this spore-former. This review discusses the prevalence of B. licheniformis from raw milk to commercial dairy products, biofilm formation and spoilage potential of B. licheniformis, and its potential prevention methods. In addition, the potential benefits of B. licheniformis in the dairy industry were also summarized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dai Hongchao
- School of Food Science and Engineering, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, 225127 China; Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonoses, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, 225009 China
| | - Lili Ma
- School of Food Science and Engineering, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, 225127 China
| | - Zhenbo Xu
- School of Food Science and Engineering, Guangdong Province Key Laboratory for Green Processing of Natural Products and Product Safety, Engineering Research Center of Starch and Vegetable Protein Processing Ministry of Education, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China; Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States; Home Economics Technology, Rajamangala University of Technology Phra Nakhon, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Thanapop Soteyome
- Home Economics Technology, Rajamangala University of Technology Phra Nakhon, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Lei Yuan
- School of Food Science and Engineering, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, 225127 China; Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonoses, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, 225009 China.
| | - Zhenquan Yang
- School of Food Science and Engineering, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, 225127 China
| | - Xin-An Jiao
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonoses, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, 225009 China
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2
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Fan L, Dai H, Zhou W, Yuan L, Yang J, Yang Z, Jiao XA. Unraveling the significance of calcium as a biofilm promotion signal for Bacillus licheniformis strains isolated from dairy products. Food Res Int 2024; 182:114145. [PMID: 38519175 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2024.114145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2023] [Revised: 02/15/2024] [Accepted: 02/17/2024] [Indexed: 03/24/2024]
Abstract
Bacillus licheniformis, a quick and strong biofilm former, is served as a persistent microbial contamination in the dairy industry. Its biofilm formation process is usually regulated by environmental factors including the divalent cation Ca2+. This work aims to investigate how different concentrations of Ca2+ change biofilm-related phenotypes (bacterial motility, biofilm-forming capacity, biofilm structures, and EPS production) of dairy B. licheniformis strains. The Ca2+ ions dependent regulation mechanism for B. licheniformis biofilm formation was further investigated by RNA-sequencing analysis. Results revealed that supplementation of Ca2+ increased B. licheniformis biofilm formation in a dose-dependent way, and enhanced average coverage and thickness of biofilms with complex structures were observed by confocal laser scanning microscopy. Bacterial mobility of B. licheniformis was increased by the supplementation of Ca2+ except the swarming ability at 20 mM of Ca2+. The addition of Ca2+ decreased the contents of polysaccharides but promoted proteins production in EPS, and the ratio of proteins/polysaccharides content was significantly enhanced with increasing Ca2+ concentrations. RNA-sequencing results clearly indicated the variation in regulating biofilm formation under different Ca2+ concentrations, as 939 (671 upregulated and 268 downregulated) and 951 genes (581 upregulated and 370 downregulated) in B. licheniformis BL2-11 were induced by 10 and 20 mM of Ca2+, respectively. Differential genes were annotated in various KEGG pathways, including flagellar assembly, two-component system, quorum sensing, ABC transporters, and related carbohydrate and amino acid metabolism pathways. Collectively, the results unravel the significance of Ca2+ as a biofilm-promoting signal for B. licheniformis in the dairy industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luyao Fan
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu 225127, China
| | - Hongchao Dai
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu 225127, China
| | - Wenyuan Zhou
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu 225127, China
| | - Lei Yuan
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu 225127, China; Key Laboratory of Dairy Science (Northeast Agricultural University), Ministry of Education, Harbin, Heilongjiang 150030, China; Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonoses, Yangzhou, Jiangsu 225009, China.
| | - Jia Yang
- Yangzhou Institute for Food and Drug Control, Yangzhou, Jiangsu 225106, China
| | - Zhenquan Yang
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu 225127, China
| | - Xin-An Jiao
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonoses, Yangzhou, Jiangsu 225009, China
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3
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Diarra C, Goetz C, Gagnon M, Roy D, Jean J. Biofilm formation by heat-resistant dairy bacteria: multispecies biofilm model under static and dynamic conditions. Appl Environ Microbiol 2023; 89:e0071323. [PMID: 37732743 PMCID: PMC10617596 DOI: 10.1128/aem.00713-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2023] [Accepted: 07/26/2023] [Indexed: 09/22/2023] Open
Abstract
In the food industry, especially dairy, biofilms can be formed by heat-resistant spoilage and pathogenic bacteria from the farm. Such biofilms may persist throughout the processing chain and contaminate milk and dairy products continuously, increasing equipment cleaning, maintenance costs, and product recalls. Most biofilms are multispecies, yet most studies focus on single-species models. A multispecies model of dairy biofilm was developed under static and dynamic conditions using heat-resistant Bacillus licheniformis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Clostridium tyrobutyricum, Enterococcus faecalis, Streptococcus thermophilus, and Rothia kristinae isolated from dairies. C. tyrobutiricum and R. kristinae were weak producers of biofilm, whereas the other four were moderate to strong producers. Based on cross-streaking on agar, P. aeruginosa was found to inhibit B. licheniformis and E. faecalis. In multispecies biofilm formed on stainless steel in a CDC reactor fed microfiltered milk, the strong biofilm producers were dominant while the weak producers were barely detectable. All biofilm matrices were dispersed easily by proteinase K treatment but were less sensitive to DNase or carbohydrases. Further studies are needed to deepen our understanding of multispecies biofilms and interactions within to develop improved preventive strategies to control the proliferation of spoilage and pathogenic bacteria in dairies and other food processing environments. IMPORTANCE A model of multispecies biofilm was created to study biofilm formation by heat-resistant bacteria in the dairy industry. The biofilm formation potential was evaluated under static conditions. A continuous flow version was then developed to study multispecies biofilm formed on stainless steel in microfiltered milk under dynamic conditions encountered in dairy processing equipment. The study of biofilm composition and bacterial interactions therein will lead to more effective means of suppressing bacterial growth on food processing equipment and contamination of products with spoilage and pathogenic bacteria, which represent considerable economic loss.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carine Diarra
- Département des Sciences des Aliments, Institut sur la Nutrition et les Aliments Fonctionnels, Université Laval, Québec, Canada
- Regroupement de recherche pour un lait de qualité optimale (Op+Lait), Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec, Canada
| | - Coralie Goetz
- Département des Sciences des Aliments, Institut sur la Nutrition et les Aliments Fonctionnels, Université Laval, Québec, Canada
- Regroupement de recherche pour un lait de qualité optimale (Op+Lait), Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec, Canada
| | - Mérilie Gagnon
- Département des Sciences des Aliments, Institut sur la Nutrition et les Aliments Fonctionnels, Université Laval, Québec, Canada
- Regroupement de recherche pour un lait de qualité optimale (Op+Lait), Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec, Canada
| | - Denis Roy
- Département des Sciences des Aliments, Institut sur la Nutrition et les Aliments Fonctionnels, Université Laval, Québec, Canada
- Regroupement de recherche pour un lait de qualité optimale (Op+Lait), Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec, Canada
| | - Julie Jean
- Département des Sciences des Aliments, Institut sur la Nutrition et les Aliments Fonctionnels, Université Laval, Québec, Canada
- Regroupement de recherche pour un lait de qualité optimale (Op+Lait), Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec, Canada
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Yao S, Hao L, Zhou R, Jin Y, Huang J, Wu C. Multispecies biofilms in fermentation: Biofilm formation, microbial interactions, and communication. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2022; 21:3346-3375. [PMID: 35762651 DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2021] [Revised: 05/07/2022] [Accepted: 05/15/2022] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Food fermentation is driven by microorganisms, which usually coexist as multispecies biofilms. The activities and interactions of functional microorganisms and pathogenic bacteria in biofilms have important implications for the quality and safety of fermented foods. It was verified that the biofilm lifestyle benefited the fitness of microorganisms in harsh environments and intensified the cooperation and competition between biofilm members. This review focuses on multispecies biofilm formation, microbial interactions and communication in biofilms, and the application of multispecies biofilms in food fermentation. Microbial aggregation and adhesion are important steps in the early stage of multispecies biofilm formation. Different biofilm-forming abilities and strategies among microorganisms lead to several types of multispecies biofilm formation. The spatial distribution of multispecies biofilms reflects microbial interactions and biofilm function. Then, we discuss the intrinsic factors and external manifestations of multispecies biofilm system succession. Several typical interspecies cooperation and competition modes and mechanisms of microbial communication were reviewed in this review. The main limitations of the studies included in this review are the relatively small number of studies of biofilms formed by functional microorganisms during fermentation and the lack of direct evidence for the formation process of multispecies biofilms and microbial interactions and communication within biofilms. This review aims to provide the food industry with a sufficient understanding of multispecies biofilms in food fermentation. Practical Application: Meanwhile, it offers a reference value for better controlling and utilizing biofilms during food fermentation process, and the improvement of the yield, quality, and safety of fermented products including Chinese Baijiu, cheeese,kefir, soy sauce, kombucha, and fermented olive.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shangjie Yao
- College of Biomass Science and Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China.,Key Laboratory of Leather Chemistry and Engineering, Ministry of Education, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Liying Hao
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Rongqing Zhou
- College of Biomass Science and Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China.,Key Laboratory of Leather Chemistry and Engineering, Ministry of Education, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Yao Jin
- College of Biomass Science and Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China.,Key Laboratory of Leather Chemistry and Engineering, Ministry of Education, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Jun Huang
- College of Biomass Science and Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China.,Key Laboratory of Leather Chemistry and Engineering, Ministry of Education, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Chongde Wu
- College of Biomass Science and Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China.,Key Laboratory of Leather Chemistry and Engineering, Ministry of Education, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
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Wang N, Jin Y, He G, Yuan L. Development of multi-species biofilm formed by thermophilic bacteria on stainless steel immerged in skimmed milk. Food Res Int 2021; 150:110754. [PMID: 34865772 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2021.110754] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2021] [Revised: 09/22/2021] [Accepted: 10/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Thermophilic bacteria, such as Bacillus licheniformis, Geobacillus stearothermophilus, Bacillus Subtilis and Anoxybacillus flavithermus, are detected frequently in milk powder products. Biofilms of those strains act as a major contamination to milk powder manufactures and pose potential risks in food safety. In this study, we explored the developing process of multi-species biofilm formed by the four thermophilic bacteria on stainless steel immerged in skimmed milk. The results showed that the thermophilic strains possessed strong capacities to decompose proteins and lactose in skimmed milk, and the spoilage effects were superimposed from multiple strains. B. licheniformis was the most predominant species in the mixed-species biofilm after 12-h incubation. From 24 h to 48 h, G. stearothermophilus occupied the highest proportion. Within the multi-species biofilm, competitive relation existed between B. licheniformis and G. stearothermophilus, while synergistic impacts were observed between B. licheniformis and A. flavithermus. The interspecies mutual influences on biofilm development provided important evidences for understanding colonization of the predominant thermophilic bacteria during milk powder processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ni Wang
- School of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China
| | - Yujie Jin
- College of Biosystems Engineering and Food Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Guoqing He
- College of Biosystems Engineering and Food Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China.
| | - Lei Yuan
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225127, China.
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Wang N, Jin Y, He G, Yuan L. Intraspecific and interspecific extracellular metabolites remodel biofilms formed by thermophilic spoilage bacteria. J Appl Microbiol 2021; 133:2096-2106. [PMID: 34689405 DOI: 10.1111/jam.15338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2021] [Revised: 09/24/2021] [Accepted: 10/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
AIMS Thermophilic spoilage bacteria and their biofilms formed during milk powder processing posed threats to safety and quality of dairy products. This research aims to understand more about the bacterial behaviours and their social models in biofilms. METHODS AND RESULTS Interactional effects from both extracellular metabolites and co-culture on biofilms formation of the contaminating thermophilic bacteria were determined. The results showed that strong biofilm formers always had high AI-2 activities, including Geobacillus stearothermophilus gs1, Bacillus licheniformis bl1 and Thermoactinomyces vulgaris tv1. Metabolites from themself or other species altered their biofilm biomass detected by crystal violet staining. Dual-species cultures observed by confocal laser scanning microscope indicated either synergistic or inhibitory effects between B. circulans bc1 and G. stearothermophilus gs1, as well as B. licheniformis bl1 and G. stearothermophilus gs1. Fourier transform infrared spectrometry results revealed the significant diversities in polysaccharides of the biofilm matrix. CONCLUSIONS Cell communication played an important role on biofilm formation in the complex microbial community. Intraspecific and interspecific extracellular metabolites influenced collective bacterial behaviours under mixed circumstances. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF STUDY This research provided evidences on cell communication and biofilm formation of thermophilic bacteria in dairy industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ni Wang
- School of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Yujie Jin
- College of Biosystems Engineering and Food Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Guoqing He
- College of Biosystems Engineering and Food Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Lei Yuan
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
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Abriat C, Gazil O, Heuzey MC, Daigle F, Virgilio N. The Polymeric Matrix Composition of Vibrio cholerae Biofilms Modulate Resistance to Silver Nanoparticles Prepared by Hydrothermal Synthesis. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2021; 13:35356-35364. [PMID: 34286588 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.1c07455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Biofilms represent the dominant microbial lifestyle in nature. These complex microbial communities in which bacteria are embedded in a self-produced protective polymeric extracellular matrix, display an enhanced resistance to antimicrobials and thus represent a major health challenge. Although nanoparticles have proven to be effective against bacteria, the interactions between nanoparticles and the polymeric biofilm matrix are still unclear. In this work, silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) were used on mature biofilms formed by the pathogen Vibrio cholerae, and their effects on the biofilm microstructure were evaluated. Bacteria cells within mature biofilms showed an increased tolerance to AgNPs, with their elimination requiring a concentration nine times higher than planktonic cells. Mutant strains not able to form a pellicle biofilm were four times more susceptible to AgNPs than the wild-type strain forming a strong biofilm. Moreover, electron microscopy analysis revealed that AgNPs interacted with the extracellular matrix components and disrupted its microstructure. Finally, two major proteins, Bap1 and RbmA, appeared to mediate the biofilm bacterial resistance to AgNPs. This work highlights the role of the polymeric biofilm matrix composition in resistance to AgNPs. It underlines how crucial it is to understand and characterize the interactions between nanoparticles and the biofilm matrix, in order to design appropriate metallic nanoparticles efficient against bacterial biofilms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clémence Abriat
- CREPEC, Department of Chemical Engineering, Polytechnique Montréal, Montréal, Québec H3T1J4, Canada
- Department of Microbiology, Infection and Immunology, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Québec H3C3J7, Canada
| | - Olivier Gazil
- CREPEC, Department of Chemical Engineering, Polytechnique Montréal, Montréal, Québec H3T1J4, Canada
| | - Marie-Claude Heuzey
- CREPEC, Department of Chemical Engineering, Polytechnique Montréal, Montréal, Québec H3T1J4, Canada
| | - France Daigle
- Department of Microbiology, Infection and Immunology, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Québec H3C3J7, Canada
| | - Nick Virgilio
- CREPEC, Department of Chemical Engineering, Polytechnique Montréal, Montréal, Québec H3T1J4, Canada
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Bertsch P, Etter D, Fischer P. Transient in situ measurement of kombucha biofilm growth and mechanical properties. Food Funct 2021; 12:4015-4020. [PMID: 33978026 DOI: 10.1039/d1fo00630d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Kombucha is a traditional beverage obtained by the fermentation of sugared tea by a symbiotic culture of bacteria and yeast which has recently re-emerged as a popular lifestyle product with potential health benefits. The characteristic feature of kombucha is the formation of a cellulosic biofilm due to the excretion of bacterial cellulose with high purity and crystallinity. Despite the growing industrial and technological interest in kombucha, current characterization techniques rely on the periodic sampling of tea broth or biofilm and ex situ analysis of its biochemical or microbial composition. Here, we use interfacial shear rheology (ISR) for the transient in situ determination of kombucha biofilm growth directly at the interface. ISR revealed that kombucha biofilm formation is a two step process with clearly distinguishable growth phases. The first phase can be attributed to the initial adsorption of bacteria at the air-water interface and shows great variability, probably due to varying bacteria content and composition. The second phase is initiated by bacterial cellulose excretion and shows astonishing reproducibility regarding onset and final mechanical properties. Hence, ISR qualifies as a new in situ characterization technique for kombucha biofilm growth and bacterial cellulose production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pascal Bertsch
- Institute of Food Nutrition and Health, ETH Zurich, 8092 Zurich, Switzerland.
| | - Danai Etter
- Institute of Food Nutrition and Health, ETH Zurich, 8092 Zurich, Switzerland. and Institute for Food Safety and Hygiene, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zürich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Peter Fischer
- Institute of Food Nutrition and Health, ETH Zurich, 8092 Zurich, Switzerland.
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Ishikawa T, Omori T, Kikuchi K. Bacterial biomechanics-From individual behaviors to biofilm and the gut flora. APL Bioeng 2020; 4:041504. [PMID: 33163845 PMCID: PMC7595747 DOI: 10.1063/5.0026953] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2020] [Accepted: 10/16/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Bacteria inhabit a variety of locations and play important roles in the environment and health. Our understanding of bacterial biomechanics has improved markedly in the last decade and has revealed that biomechanics play a significant role in microbial biology. The obtained knowledge has enabled investigation of complex phenomena, such as biofilm formation and the dynamics of the gut flora. A bottom-up strategy, i.e., from the cellular to the macroscale, facilitates understanding of macroscopic bacterial phenomena. In this Review, we first cover the biomechanics of individual bacteria in the bulk liquid and on surfaces as the base of complex phenomena. The collective behaviors of bacteria in simple environments are next introduced. We then introduce recent advances in biofilm biomechanics, in which adhesion force and the flow environment play crucial roles. We also review transport phenomena in the intestine and the dynamics of the gut flora, focusing on that in zebrafish. Finally, we provide an overview of the future prospects for the field.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Toshihiro Omori
- Department Finemechanics, Graduate School of Engineering, Tohoku University, Sendai 980-8579, Japan
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Abriat C, Enriquez K, Virgilio N, Cegelski L, Fuller GG, Daigle F, Heuzey MC. Mechanical and microstructural insights of Vibrio cholerae and Escherichia coli dual-species biofilm at the air-liquid interface. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2020; 188:110786. [DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2020.110786] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2019] [Revised: 12/16/2019] [Accepted: 01/08/2020] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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