Microbe Profile: Cryptococcus neoformans species complex

Essential genes encoded by the mating-type locus of the human fungal pathogen Cryptococcus neoformans

Fungal sexual reproduction is controlled by the mating-type (MAT) locus. In contrast to a majority of species in the phylum Basidiomycota that have tetrapolar mating-type systems, the opportunistic human pathogen Cryptococcus neoformans employs a bipolar mating-type system, with two mating types (a and α) determined by a single MAT locus that is unusually large (~120 kb) and contains more than 20 genes. While several MAT genes are associated with mating and sexual development, others control conserved cellular processes (e.g., cargo transport and protein synthesis), of which five (MYO2, PRT1, RPL22, RPL39, and RPO41) have been hypothesized to be essential. In this study, through genetic analysis involving sporulation of heterozygous diploid deletion mutants, as well as in some cases construction and analyses of conditional expression alleles of these genes, we confirmed that with the exception of MYO2, both alleles of the other four MAT genes are indeed essential for cell viability. We further showed that while MYO2 is not essential, its function is critical for infectious spore production, faithful cytokinesis, adaptation for growth at high temperature, and pathogenicity in vivo. Our results demonstrate the presence of essential genes in the MAT locus that are divergent between cells of opposite mating types. We discuss possible mechanisms to maintain functional alleles of these essential genes in a rapidly evolving genomic region in the context of fungal sexual reproduction and mating-type evolution.IMPORTANCESexual reproduction is essential for long-term evolutionary success. Fungal cell-type identity is governed by the MAT locus, which is typically rapidly evolving and highly divergent between different mating types. In this study, we show that the a and α alleles of four genes encoded in the MAT locus of the opportunistic human fungal pathogen C. neoformans are essential. We demonstrate that a fifth gene, MYO2, which had been predicted to be essential, is in fact dispensable for cell viability. However, a functional MYO2 allele is important for cytokinesis and fungal pathogenicity. Our study highlights the need for careful genetic analyses in determining essential genes, which is complementary to high-throughput approaches. Additionally, the presence of essential genes in the MAT locus of C. neoformans provides insights into the function, maintenance, and evolution of these fast-evolving genomic regions.

Cryptococcal prostatitis in an immunocompromised patient with tocilizumab and glucocorticoid therapy: A case report

Cryptococcus prostatitis is an uncommon manifestation of cryptococcal infection that occurs mostly in immunocompromised patients. Tocilizumab, an anti-interleukin-6 receptor monoclonal antibody, has been associated with an increased risk of cryptococcal infections. However, there have been no documented cases of cryptococcal prostatitis in patients receiving tocilizumab therapy. We report a case of cryptococcal prostatitis in a 72-year-old man treated with glucocorticoids and tocilizumab for giant cell arteritis and granulomatosis with polyangiitis. The patient presented dysuria and his serum level of prostate-specific antigen was elevated. Magnetic resonance imaging revealed a prostate mass, and a prostate biopsy was performed, leading to a pathologic diagnosis of cryptococcal prostatitis. Fungal cultures for blood and urine were negative, while the cryptococcal antigen for both serum and urine showed positive results. There were no particular findings in the pulmonary and central nervous systems. The patient was successfully treated with oral fluconazole (400 mg/day) and was discharged. Although cryptococcal prostatitis is a rare entity, clinicians should note that an immunosuppressed patient may develop such a difficult-to-diagnose disease.

Primary cutaneous cryptococcosis - History, concepts, clinical and therapeutic update

Cryptococcosis is a disease caused by fungi of the genus Cryptococcus, with the species Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii being recognized as pathogenic. Cutaneous cryptococcosis can be classified as "secondary", developing from a previous systemic disease, or, on the contrary, "primary", resulting from transcutaneous inoculation of the agent. It can also be classified as "disseminated cutaneous cryptococcosis", when there is an associated systemic disease, or "localized", when it is restricted to the skin. This article uses the term "primary cutaneous cryptococcosis" because it is the most widely used and already established in the literature. Historically, the first report of a possible case of primary cutaneous cryptococcosis (PCC) occurred in 1950 by Gancy WM and was published in the Archives of Dermatology and Syphilology. Subsequently, the rare and sporadic reports in the following decades were reviewed and reported in the 1985 publication by Baes & van Cutsen. However, the unequivocal acceptance of the existence of PCC as a distinct disease only occurred in 2003 with the publication by Neville S et al. of the French Cryptococcosis Study Group. The fundamental criterion established to consider it as PCC was the proven absence of systemic disease, whether pulmonary, in the CNS or other location at the time of diagnosis of the cutaneous condition, characterized by a single lesion and, mostly, in an exposed area. These and other clinical criteria, diagnostic confirmation, and therapeutic choice are discussed in detail in the full text.

Cryptococcal meningoencephalitis in a patient on immunomodulatory drug: A case report

BACKGROUND

Cryptococcus neoformans is an important fungal pathogen causing pneumonia and central nervous system infections mainly in immunocompromised hosts. Fingolimod is an immunomodulatory drug approved in the US and Europe for the treatment of multiple sclerosis.

CASE PRESENTATION

We herein report a case of cryptococcal meningoencephalitis in a 46-year-old male with a history of fingolimod for five years. He suffered from a progressive headache and visual impairment. These symptoms led to a suspicion of a central nervous system infection and C. neoformans was identified with nucleic acid-based PCR method. Subsequently, appropriate treatment was initiated, and the patient recovered.

CONCLUSIONS

Our case underlines the importance of active diagnostic measures such as cerebrospinal fluid analysis in patients under fingolimod treatment with central nervous symptoms. While multiple sclerosis may cause headache and vision impairment, similar symptoms may be caused by central nervous system infections. It has been suggested that fingolimod may subject one to infections and this may occur even years after initiation of the treatment. For our case patient Cerebrospinal fluid sample combined with PCR-based identification provided a rapid diagnosis.

Natural Products in Precision Neurological Disease (Cryptococcal Meningitis): Structure-Based Phytochemical Screening of Glycyrrhiza glabra Plant Against Cryptococcus neoformans Farnesyltransferase (FTase)

Cryptococcus neoformans causes cryptococcal meningitis, which is lethal to immune-compromised people, especially AIDS patients. This study employed diverse in silico techniques to find the best phytochemical to block farnesyltransferase (FTase). Based on molecular docking, the top two compounds selected from a screening of 5807 phytochemical compounds from 29 medicinal plants were CID_8299 (hydroxyacetone) and CID_71346280 (1,7-bis (4-hydroxyphenyl)-1,4,6-heptatrien-3-one), with docking scores of -5.786 and -0.078 kcal/mol, respectively, indicating stronger binding affinities than the control CID_3365 (fluconazole), which scored -4.2 kcal/mol. The control and lead compounds bind at the common active site of protein by interacting with common amino acid residues (HIS97, GLN408, PHE93, and TRP94). Post-docking MM-GBSA verified docking score where CID_8299 and CID_71346280 had negative binding free energies of -19.81 and -0.27 kcal/mol, respectively. These two lead compounds were reassessed through molecular dynamics simulation (100 ns), and several post-dynamics analyses were conducted. CID_71346280, 8299, and 3365 (control) showed average RSMD values of 3.17, 1.904, and 2.08; average root mean square fluctuation values of 1.167, 0.886, and 1.028 Å; average radius of gyration values of 5.13, 1.58, and 3.54 Å; average solvent accessible surface area values of 121.16, 3.51, and 183.81 Å2; average H-bond values of 466.05, 470.84, and 456.84 Å, respectively. The results revealed that CID_8299 had the highest stability and consistent interaction with the target protein throughout the simulation period. According to the toxicity analysis, CID_8299, which is found in the Glycyrrhiza glabra plant, can also cross the BBB, which makes it unbeatable in treating neuro-disease caused by C. neoformans and may potentially block FTase protein's activity inhibiting post-translational lipidation of essential signal transduction protein.

Essential genes encoded by the mating-type locus of the human fungal pathogen Cryptococcus neoformans

Fungal sexual reproduction is controlled by the mating-type (MAT) locus. In contrast to a majority of species in the phylum Basidiomycota that have tetrapolar mating-type systems, the opportunistic human pathogen Cryptococcus neoformans employs a bipolar mating-type system, with two mating types (a and α) determined by a single MAT locus that is unusually large (~120 kb) and contains more than 20 genes. While several MAT genes are associated with mating and sexual development, others control conserved cellular processes (e.g. cargo transport and protein synthesis), of which five (MYO2, PRT1, RPL22, RPL39, and RPO41) have been hypothesized to be essential. In this study, through genetic analysis involving sporulation of heterozygous diploid deletion mutants, as well as in some cases construction and analyses of conditional expression alleles of these genes, we confirmed that with the exception of MYO2, both alleles of the other four MAT genes are indeed essential for cell viability. We further showed that while MYO2 is not essential, its function is critical for infectious spore production, faithful cytokinesis, adaptation for growth at high temperature, and pathogenicity in vivo. Our results demonstrate the presence of essential genes in the MAT locus that are divergent between cells of opposite mating types. We discuss possible mechanisms to maintain functional alleles of these essential genes in a rapidly-evolving genomic region in the context of fungal sexual reproduction and mating-type evolution.

Cell wall melanin impedes growth of the Cryptococcus neoformans polysaccharide capsule by sequestering calcium

Cryptococcus neoformans has emerged as a frontrunner among deadly fungal pathogens and is particularly life-threatening for many HIV-infected individuals with compromised immunity. Multiple virulence factors contribute to the growth and survival of C. neoformans within the human host, the two most prominent of which are the polysaccharide capsule and melanin. As both of these features are associated with the cell wall, we were interested to explore possible cooperative or competitive interactions between these two virulence factors. Whereas capsule thickness had no effect on the rate at which cells became melanized, build-up of the melanin pigment layer resulted in a concomitant loss of polysaccharide material, leaving melanized cells with significantly thinner capsules than their nonmelanized counterparts. When melanin was provided exogenously to cells in a transwell culture system we observed a similar inhibition of capsule growth and maintenance. Our results show that melanin sequesters calcium thereby limiting its availability to form divalent bridges between polysaccharide subunits required for outer capsule assembly. The decreased ability of melanized cells to incorporate exported polysaccharide into the growing capsule correlated with the amount of shed polysaccharide, which could have profound negative impacts on the host immune response.

Cell wall melanin impedes growth of the Cryptococcus neoformans polysaccharide capsule by sequestering calcium

Cryptococcus neoformans has emerged as a frontrunner among deadly fungal pathogens and is particularly life-threatening for many HIV-infected individuals with compromised immunity. Multiple virulence factors contribute to the growth and survival of C. neoformans within the human host, the two most prominent of which are the polysaccharide capsule and melanin. As both of these features are associated with the cell wall, we were interested to explore possible cooperative or competitive interactions between these two virulence factors. Whereas capsule thickness had no effect on the rate at which cells became melanized, build-up of the melanin pigment layer resulted in a concomitant loss of polysaccharide material, leaving melanized cells with significantly thinner capsules than their non-melanized counterparts. When melanin was provided exogenously to cells in a transwell culture system we observed a similar inhibition of capsule growth and maintenance. Our results show that melanin sequesters calcium thereby limiting its availability to form divalent bridges between polysaccharide subunits required for outer capsule assembly. The decreased ability of melanized cells to incorporate exported polysaccharide into the growing capsule correlated with the amount of shed polysaccharide, which could have profound negative impacts on the host immune response.

Significance Statement

Cryptococcus neoformans is an opportunistic fungal pathogen that presents a significant health risk for immunocompromised individuals. We report an interaction between the two major cryptococcal virulence factors, the polysaccharide capsule and melanin. Melanin impacted the growth and maintenance of the polysaccharide capsule, resulting in loss of capsular material during melanization. Our results suggest that melanin can act as a sink for calcium, thereby limiting its availability to form ionic bridges between polysaccharide chains on the growing surface of the outer capsule. As polysaccharide is continuously exported to support capsule growth, failure of melanized cells to incorporate this material results in a higher concentration of shed polysaccharide in the extracellular milieu, which is expected to interfere with host immunity.

Comparative genomics of the closely related fungal genera Cryptococcus and Kwoniella reveals karyotype dynamics and suggests evolutionary mechanisms of pathogenesis

In exploring the evolutionary trajectories of both pathogenesis and karyotype dynamics in fungi, we conducted a large-scale comparative genomic analysis spanning the Cryptococcus genus, encompassing both global human fungal pathogens and nonpathogenic species, and related species from the sister genus Kwoniella. Chromosome-level genome assemblies were generated for multiple species, covering virtually all known diversity within these genera. Although Cryptococcus and Kwoniella have comparable genome sizes (about 19.2 and 22.9 Mb) and similar gene content, hinting at preadaptive pathogenic potential, our analysis found evidence of gene gain (via horizontal gene transfer) and gene loss in pathogenic Cryptococcus species, which might represent evolutionary signatures of pathogenic development. Genome analysis also revealed a significant variation in chromosome number and structure between the 2 genera. By combining synteny analysis and experimental centromere validation, we found that most Cryptococcus species have 14 chromosomes, whereas most Kwoniella species have fewer (11, 8, 5, or even as few as 3). Reduced chromosome number in Kwoniella is associated with formation of giant chromosomes (up to 18 Mb) through repeated chromosome fusion events, each marked by a pericentric inversion and centromere loss. While similar chromosome inversion-fusion patterns were observed in all Kwoniella species with fewer than 14 chromosomes, no such pattern was detected in Cryptococcus. Instead, Cryptococcus species with less than 14 chromosomes showed reductions primarily through rearrangements associated with the loss of repeat-rich centromeres. Additionally, Cryptococcus genomes exhibited frequent interchromosomal translocations, including intercentromeric recombination facilitated by transposons shared between centromeres. Overall, our findings advance our understanding of genetic changes possibly associated with pathogenicity in Cryptococcus and provide a foundation to elucidate mechanisms of centromere loss and chromosome fusion driving distinct karyotypes in closely related fungal species, including prominent global human pathogens.

The Antifungal Potential of Niclosamide and Structurally Related Salicylanilides

Human mycoses cover a diverse field of fungal diseases from skin disorders to systemic invasive infections and pose an increasing global health problem based on ineffective treatment options, the hampered development of new efficient drugs, and the emergence of resistant fungal strains. Niclosamide is currently applied for the treatment of worm infections. Its mechanisms of action, which include the suppression of mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation (also known as mitochondrial uncoupling), among others, has led to a repurposing of this promising anthelmintic drug for the therapy of further human diseases such as cancer, diabetes, and microbial infections. Given the urgent need to develop new drugs against fungal infections, the considerable antifungal properties of niclosamide are highlighted in this review. Its chemical and pharmacological properties relevant for drug development are also briefly mentioned, and the described mitochondria-targeting mechanisms of action add to the current arsenal of approved antifungal drugs. In addition, the activities of further salicylanilide-based niclosamide analogs against fungal pathogens, including agents applied in veterinary medicine for many years, are described and discussed for their feasibility as new antifungals for humans. Preliminary structure-activity relationships are determined and discussed. Various salicylanilide derivatives with antifungal activities showed increased oral bioavailabilities when compared with niclosamide. The simple synthesis of salicylanilide-based drugs also vouchsafes a broad and cost-effective availability for poorer patient groups. Pertinent literature is covered until 2024.

Disseminated Cryptococcosis Post Eculizumab Therapy: A Case Report and Literature Review

Eculizumab is a biologic medication used for the treatment of complement-related disorders including anti-acetylcholine receptor antibody-positive generalized myasthenia gravis. It targets C5 complement, preventing its cleavage into active terminal components. Thus, vaccination against encapsulated organisms is advised before starting this treatment. C5 also has a critical role against Cryptococcus neoformans infection. Here, we present a case of a 34-year-old man with a history of myasthenia gravis who was treated with prednisone and azathioprine in addition to eculizumab that was added to his regimen about a year ago, and who came to the hospital with headache, and was found to have Cryptococcus meningitis with disseminated cryptococcosis. The patient was negative for human immunodeficiency virus. He was treated with antifungal medications, and his condition improved. Although rarely reported, it is important to have a low threshold for diagnosis of cryptococcosis in patients on eculizumab given its complement inhibition mechanism of action.

Trends in the Incidence of Disseminated Cryptococcosis in Japan: A Nationwide Observational Study, 2015-2021

BACKGROUND

Cryptococcus species can cause severe disseminated infections in immunocompromised hosts. This study investigated the epidemiological features and trends in disseminated cryptococcosis in Japan.

METHODS

We used publicly available Infectious Diseases Weekly Reports to obtain data on the incidence of disseminated cryptococcosis in Japan from 2015 to 2021. Patient information, including age, sex, and regional and seasonal data, were extracted. The Joinpoint regression program was used to determine the age-adjusted incidence rate (AAR) per 100,000 population, annual percentage change (APC), and average APC (AAPC).

RESULTS

A total of 1047 cases of disseminated cryptococcosis were reported, of which those aged ≥ 70 years accounted for 68.8%. The AAR in men was significantly higher than that in women (median: 0.13 vs. 0.09: p = 0.0024). APC for the overall cases increased by 9.9% (95% confidence interval [95% CI] - 5.4-27.7) from 2015 to 2018 and then decreased by 3.3% (95% CI - 15.5-10.7) from 2018 to 2021. AAPC for the entire study period was 3.1% (95% CI - 1.5-8.0), indicating a possible increase in its number, although not statistically significant. In terms of regional distribution, the average AAR was highest in Shikoku District (0.17) and lowest in Hokkaido District (0.04). Northern Japan exhibited a significantly lower median AAR (median [interquartile range]: 0.06 [0.05, 0.08]) than the Eastern (0.12 [0.12, 0.13]), Western (0.11 [0.10, 0.13]), and Southern (0.14 [0.12, 0.15]) regions. No seasonal variation in incidence was observed.

CONCLUSION

The prevalence of disseminated cryptococcosis has not increased in Japan. Geographically, the incidence is lower in Northern Japan. Further investigations that incorporate detailed clinical data are required.

Comparative genomics of Cryptococcus and Kwoniella reveals pathogenesis evolution and contrasting karyotype dynamics via intercentromeric recombination or chromosome fusion

A large-scale comparative genomic analysis was conducted for the global human fungal pathogens within the Cryptococcus genus, compared to non-pathogenic Cryptococcus species, and related species from the sister genus Kwoniella. Chromosome-level genome assemblies were generated for multiple species of both genera, resulting in a dataset encompassing virtually all of their known diversity. Although Cryptococcus and Kwoniella have comparable genome sizes (about 19.2 and 22.9 Mb) and similar gene content, hinting at pre-adaptive pathogenic potential, our analysis found evidence in pathogenic Cryptococcus species of specific examples of gene gain (via horizontal gene transfer) and gene loss, which might represent evolutionary signatures of pathogenic development. Genome analysis also revealed a significant variation in chromosome number and structure between the two genera. By combining synteny analysis and experimental centromere validation, we found that most Cryptococcus species have 14 chromosomes, whereas most Kwoniella species have fewer (11, 8, 5 or even as few as 3). Reduced chromosome number in Kwoniella is associated with formation of giant chromosomes (up to 18 Mb) through repeated chromosome fusion events, each marked by a pericentric inversion and centromere loss. While similar chromosome inversion-fusion patterns were observed in all Kwoniella species with fewer than 14 chromosomes, no such pattern was detected in Cryptococcus. Instead, Cryptococcus species with less than 14 chromosomes, underwent chromosome reductions primarily through rearrangements associated with the loss of repeat-rich centromeres. Additionally, Cryptococcus genomes exhibited frequent interchromosomal translocations, including intercentromeric recombination facilitated by transposons shared between centromeres. Taken together, our findings advance our understanding of genomic changes possibly associated with pathogenicity in Cryptococcus and provide a foundation to elucidate mechanisms of centromere loss and chromosome fusion driving distinct karyotypes in closely related fungal species, including prominent global human pathogens.

A multi-arm, parallel, preclinical study investigating the potential benefits of acetazolamide, candesartan, and triciribine in combination with fluconazole for the treatment of cryptococcal meningoencephalitis

Cryptococcus neoformans, an opportunistic fungal pathogen, primarily infects immunodeficient patients frequently causing cryptococcal meningoencephalitis (CM). Increased intracranial pressure (ICP) is a serious complication responsible for increased morbidity and mortality in CM patients. Non-invasive pharmacological agents that mitigate ICP could be beneficial in treating CM patients. The objective of the study was to investigate the efficacy of acetazolamide (AZA), candesartan (CAN), and triciribine (TCBN), in combination with the antifungal fluconazole, on C. neoformans-induced endothelial, brain, and lung injury in an experimental mouse model of CM. Our study shows that C. neoformans increases the expression of brain endothelial cell (BEC) junction proteins Claudin-5 (Cldn5) and VE-Cadherin to induce pathological cell-barrier remodeling and gap formation associated with increased Akt and p38 MAPK activation. All three agents inhibited C. neoformans-induced endothelial gap formation, only CAN and TCBN significantly reduced C. neoformans-induced Cldn5 expression, and only TCBN was effective in inhibiting Akt and p38MAPK. Interestingly, although C. neoformans did not cause brain or lung edema in mice, it induced lung and brain injuries, which were significantly reversed by AZA, CAN, or TCBN. Our study provides novel insights into the direct effects of C. neoformans on BECs in vitro, and the potential benefits of using AZA, CAN, or TCBN in the management of CM patients.

A case of hypophysis with HIV negative cryptococcal meningitis

The clinical mortality of cryptococcal meningitis (CM) is high. There is no report of hypopituitarism associated with HIV negative CM so far. The patients with hypopituitarism complicated with CM are easy to be misdiagnosed and mistreated. A patient with hypopituitarism and HIV negative CM was admitted to Weihai Municipal Hospital on August 27, 2021. The patient was treated for 18 years after craniopharyngioma with headache for more than 2 months, nausea and vomiting for 4 days. MRI showed abnormal enhancement of the right basal ganglia, edema of surrounding tissue, and multiple striated enhancement of the bilateral cerebellar hemisphere. The smear of cerebrospinal fluid showed a large number of fungi and Cryptococcus. Culture of cerebrospinal fluid showed positive in Cryptococcus. The patient's HIV and syphilis antibodies were negative. The condition of the patient was improved after active antifungal therapy. The clinician should make a definite diagnosis and give early treatment as soon as possible.

A case of orbital cryptococcosis

Purpose

This report describes a case of Cryptococcus neoformans found in an unlikely location, the orbit, in an apparently immunocompetent host.

Observations

A coordinated, multi-disciplinary approach between the ophthalmology, neurosurgery, pathology, and infectious disease departments was integral to saving both vision and life.

Conclusions and Importance

This is the first case of primary orbital cryptococcosis described in the medical literature, to the authors' knowledge. The case draws attention to the possibility that Cryptococcus neoformans can indeed invade the orbit and should be considered part of the differential diagnosis for patients presenting with orbital masses of uncertain etiology.

An Alternative Diagnostic Method for C. neoformans: Preliminary Results of Deep-Learning Based Detection Model

Cryptococcus neoformans is an opportunistic fungal pathogen with significant medical importance, especially in immunosuppressed patients. It is the causative agent of cryptococcosis. An estimated 220,000 annual cases of cryptococcal meningitis (CM) occur among people with HIV/AIDS globally, resulting in nearly 181,000 deaths. The gold standards for the diagnosis are either direct microscopic identification or fungal cultures. However, these diagnostic methods need special types of equipment and clinical expertise, and relatively low sensitivities have also been reported. This study aims to produce and implement a deep-learning approach to detect C. neoformans in patient samples. Therefore, we adopted the state-of-the-art VGG16 model, which determines the output information from a single image. Images that contain C. neoformans are designated positive, while others are designated negative throughout this section. Model training, validation, testing, and evaluation were conducted using frameworks and libraries. The state-of-the-art VGG16 model produced an accuracy and loss of 86.88% and 0.36203, respectively. Results prove that the deep learning framework VGG16 can be helpful as an alternative diagnostic method for the rapid and accurate identification of the C. neoformans, leading to early diagnosis and subsequent treatment. Further studies should include more and higher quality images to eliminate the limitations of the adopted deep learning model.

Diffuse Adrenal Gland and Pancreas Necrosis in a Patient with Disseminated Cryptococcosis-Case Report

(1) Background: Cryptococcus neoformans is mostly known for causing meningitis, with or without disseminated disease. (2) Case presentation: An immunocompromised 75-year-old gentleman presented post renal transplant with generalized weakness, altered mental status, hypoxemia, and hyponatremia, and was found to have disseminated cryptococcal infection. After an initial improvement, the patient became suddenly hypotensive, and passed away soon after. The autopsy revealed widespread cryptococcal involvement, with the most severely affected organs being the brain, lungs, pancreas, adrenal glands, and spleen. The pancreas and one of the adrenal glands revealed diffuse granulomatous cryptococcal infection, with large areas of necrosis. The spleen also showed a large area of cryptococcal necrosis. In addition, the patient had chylous ascites, without histologically identifiable organisms. (3) Conclusions: This is a rare case of disseminated cryptococcal infection with severe necrotizing adrenalitis and pancreatitis, in addition to significant spleen, lung, and central nervous system involvement. The early recognition and treatment of the adrenal gland and pancreas cryptococcosis with surgical interventions may lead to better outcomes in affected patients. Furthermore, steroid treatment and diabetes mellitus may be risk factors for adrenal gland involvement. Additionally, clinicians should keep cryptococcal infection in their differential diagnosis for isolated adrenal gland and pancreas lesions.

Draft genome sequences of strains CBS6241 and CBS6242 of the basidiomycetous yeast Filobasidium floriforme

The Tremellomycetes are a species-rich group within the basidiomycete fungi; however, most analyses of this group to date have focused on pathogenic Cryptococcus species within the order Tremellales. Recent genome-assisted studies of other Tremellomycetes have identified interesting features with respect to biotechnological applications as well as the evolution of genes involved in mating and sexual development. Here, we report genome sequences of two strains of Filobasidium floriforme, a species from the order Filobasidiales, which branches basally to the Tremellales, Trichosporonales, and Holtermanniales. The assembled genomes of strains CBS6241 and CBS6242 are 27.4 Mb and 26.4 Mb in size, respectively, with 8314 and 7695 predicted protein-coding genes. Overall sequence identity at nucleic acid level between the strains is 97%. Among the predicted genes are pheromone precursor and pheromone receptor genes as well as two genes encoding homedomain (HD) transcription factors, which are predicted to be part of the mating type (MAT) locus. Sequence analysis indicates that CBS6241 and CBS6242 carry different alleles for both the pheromone/receptor genes as well as the HD transcription factors. Orthology inference identified 1482 orthogroups exclusively found in F. floriforme, some of which were involved in carbohydrate transport and metabolism. Subsequent CAZyme repertoire characterization identified 267 and 247 enzymes for CBS6241 and CBS6242, respectively, the second highest number of CAZymes among the analyzed Tremellomycete species. In addition, F. floriforme contains five CAZymes absent in other species and several plant-cell-wall degrading CAZymes with the highest copy number in Tremellomycota, indicating the biotechnological potential of this species.

The evolving species concepts used for yeasts: from phenotypes and genomes to speciation networks

Here we review how evolving species concepts have been applied to understand yeast diversity. Initially, a phenotypic species concept was utilized taking into consideration morphological aspects of colonies and cells, and growth profiles. Later the biological species concept was added, which applied data from mating experiments. Biophysical measurements of DNA similarity between isolates were an early measure that became more broadly applied with the advent of sequencing technology, leading to a sequence-based species concept using comparisons of parts of the ribosomal DNA. At present phylogenetic species concepts that employ sequence data of rDNA and other genes are universally applied in fungal taxonomy, including yeasts, because various studies revealed a relatively good correlation between the biological species concept and sequence divergence. The application of genome information is becoming increasingly common, and we strongly recommend the use of complete, rather than draft genomes to improve our understanding of species and their genome and genetic dynamics. Complete genomes allow in-depth comparisons on the evolvability of genomes and, consequently, of the species to which they belong. Hybridization seems a relatively common phenomenon and has been observed in all major fungal lineages that contain yeasts. Note that hybrids may greatly differ in their post-hybridization development. Future in-depth studies, initially using some model species or complexes may shift the traditional species concept as isolated clusters of genetically compatible isolates to a cohesive speciation network in which such clusters are interconnected by genetic processes, such as hybridization.