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Ostuni A, Iovane V, Monné M, Crudele MA, Scicluna MT, Nardini R, Raimondi P, Frontoso R, Boni R, Bavoso A. A double-strain TM (gp45) polypeptide antigen and its application in the serodiagnosis of equine infectious anemia. J Virol Methods 2023; 315:114704. [PMID: 36842487 DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2023.114704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2023] [Revised: 02/21/2023] [Accepted: 02/23/2023] [Indexed: 02/26/2023]
Abstract
Lentiviruses, including equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV), are considered viral quasispecies because of their intrinsic genetic, structural and phenotypic variability. Immunoenzymatic tests (ELISA) for EIAV reported in the literature were obtained mainly by using the capsid protein p26, which is derived almost exclusively from a single strain (Wyoming), and do not reflect the great potential epitopic variability of the EIAV quasispecies. In this investigation, the GenBank database was exploited in a systematic approach to design a set of representative protein antigens useful for EIAV serodiagnosis. The main bioinformatic tools used were clustering, molecular modelling, epitope predictions and aggregative/ solubility predictions. This approach led to the design of two antigenic proteins, i.e. a full sequence p26 capsid protein and a doublestrain polypeptide derived from the gp45 transmembrane protein fused to Maltose Binding Protein (MBP) that were expressed by recombinant DNA technology starting from synthetic genes, and analyzed by circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy. Both proteins were used in an indirect ELISA test that can address some of the high variability of EIAV. The novel addition of the gp45 double-strain antigen contributed to enhance the diagnostic sensitivity and could be also useful for immunoblotting application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angela Ostuni
- Department of Sciences, University of Basilicata, viale Ateneo Lucano 10, 85100 Potenza, Italy.
| | - Valentina Iovane
- Dipartimento di Agraria - Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II -Via Università, 100 - 80055 Portici, NA, Italy
| | - Magnus Monné
- Department of Sciences, University of Basilicata, viale Ateneo Lucano 10, 85100 Potenza, Italy
| | | | - Maria Teresa Scicluna
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Lazio e della Toscana "M. Aleandri", Via Appia Nuova, 1411, 00178 Roma, Italy
| | - Roberto Nardini
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Lazio e della Toscana "M. Aleandri", Via Appia Nuova, 1411, 00178 Roma, Italy
| | | | - Raffaele Frontoso
- OneHEco APS, 84047 Capaccio Paestum, SA, Italy; Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Mezzogiorno Via Salute, 2 - 80055 Portici, Napoli, Italy
| | - Raffaele Boni
- Department of Sciences, University of Basilicata, viale Ateneo Lucano 10, 85100 Potenza, Italy
| | - Alfonso Bavoso
- Department of Sciences, University of Basilicata, viale Ateneo Lucano 10, 85100 Potenza, Italy
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Costa VMD, Cursino AE, Franco Luiz APM, Braz GF, Cavalcante PH, Souza CDA, Simplício KMDMG, Drumond BP, Lima MT, Teixeira BM, Kroon EG. Equine Infectious Anemia Virus (EIAV): Evidence of Circulation in Donkeys from the Brazilian Northeast Region. J Equine Vet Sci 2021; 108:103795. [PMID: 34800799 DOI: 10.1016/j.jevs.2021.103795] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2021] [Revised: 10/06/2021] [Accepted: 10/11/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Equine infectious anemia (EIA) is listed by the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE) as one of the equine diseases that must be notified. No effective treatment or vaccine is available. EIA control is based on segregation and euthanasia of positive equids. The disease is caused by the equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV), a member of the genus Lentivirus of the Retroviridae family. Despite the importance of this disease in equids, EIA has been poorly studied in donkeys (Equus asinus). We evaluate the sanitary conditions related to EIAV in donkeys from a shelter of abandoned animals captured on the roads of the Ceará. A total of 124 donkeys were randomly selected, and three horses lived at the same shelter. The animals were clinically evaluated, and a group of the 20 animals was submitted to hematological tests. Three diagnostic tests for EIA were used, agar gel immunodiffusion (AGID), enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) using EIAV recombinant protein gp90 (rgp90) and recombinant protein p26 (rp26) ELISA, and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for detection of the EIAV tat-gag gene. From the donkeys, only 1 animal was positive using AGID 0.81% (1/124), compared to 21.8% (27/124) in the rgp90 and 10.5% (13/124) in the rp26 ELISA. Proviral DNA was detected by PCR tat-gag in 8.8% (11/124), and phylogenetic analysis confirms that the EIAV sequences of donkeys from the Brazilian Northeast grouped with Pantanal Brazilian sequences. Thus, in light of the results, we conclude that donkeys are carriers of EIAV and could be sources of infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Viviane Maria Dias Costa
- Laboratório de Vírus - Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (ICB/UFMG), Av. Antonio Carlos, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Andreia Elisa Cursino
- Laboratório de Vírus - Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (ICB/UFMG), Av. Antonio Carlos, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Ana Paula Moreira Franco Luiz
- Laboratório de Vírus - Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (ICB/UFMG), Av. Antonio Carlos, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | | | | | | | | | - Betania Paiva Drumond
- Laboratório de Vírus - Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (ICB/UFMG), Av. Antonio Carlos, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Mauricio Teixeira Lima
- Instituto de Pesquisa Clínica Carlos Borborema, Fundação de Medicina Tropical Dr. Heitor Vieira Dourado, Manaus, Amazonas
| | | | - Erna Geessien Kroon
- Laboratório de Vírus - Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (ICB/UFMG), Av. Antonio Carlos, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
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Lupulovic D, Savić S, Gaudaire D, Berthet N, Grgić Ž, Matović K, Deshiere A, Hans A. Identification and genetic characterization of equine infectious anemia virus in Western Balkans. BMC Vet Res 2021; 17:168. [PMID: 33858420 PMCID: PMC8051041 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-021-02849-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2020] [Accepted: 03/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Equine infectious anemia (EIA) is a viral disease, caused by the Equine Infectious Anemia virus (EIAV) belonging to the Retroviridae family, genus Lentivirus. Horses (or equids) infected with EIAV are lifelong carriers and they remain contagious for other horses even in the absence of clinical signs. So far, EIAV infection has been reported among horses in North and South America, France, Germany, Italy, Hungary and Romania, with no publication regarding the presence of EIAV in horses in Serbia. To determine the circulation of EIAV among, approximately, the 5000 horses of the Vojvodina region, northern part of Serbia, 316 serum undergone serological testing for EIA. Then, identification and full genome sequencing using next generation sequencing was performed from one EIA positive horse. RESULTS the 316 sera were tested with 3 different commercial agar gel immunodiffusion (AGID) tests and two different commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). With the three AGID kits, 311 (98.4%) among the 316 tested sera were negative and only five (1.6%) sera were positive for EIA. Some discrepancies were seen for the two ELISA kits tested since one exhibited the same results as AGID test and the second gave 295 sera with negative results, five with a positive result and 16 with doubtful outcome. Phylogenetic analysis performed using the full genome sequence showed that EIAV characterized from a horse in Serbia is different from those identify so fare around the world and form a distinct and separate group together with another EIAV strain. CONCLUSIONS This study demonstrate for the first time that EIAV is circulating at a low level in the horse population from the Northern part of Serbia. Interestingly, phylogenetic data indicates that this EIAV from the western Balkan region of Europe belongs to a new cluster.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diana Lupulovic
- Scientific Veterinary Institute "Novi Sad", Rumenacki put 20, Novi Sad, 21000, Serbia
| | - Sara Savić
- Scientific Veterinary Institute "Novi Sad", Rumenacki put 20, Novi Sad, 21000, Serbia
| | - Delphine Gaudaire
- ANSES- Laboratory for Animal Health in Normandy, Physiopathology and Epidemiology of Equine Diseases Unit, Goustranville, France
| | - Nicolas Berthet
- The Center for Microbes, Development and Health, CAS Key Laboratory of Molecular Virology and Immunology, Institut Pasteur of Shanghai - Chinese Academy of Sciences, Discovery and Molecular Characterization of Pathogens, Shanghai, China.,Institut Pasteur, Unité Environnement et Risque Infectieux, Cellule d'Intervention Biologique d'Urgence, Paris, France.,Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200031, China
| | - Živoslav Grgić
- Scientific Veterinary Institute "Novi Sad", Rumenacki put 20, Novi Sad, 21000, Serbia
| | - Kazimir Matović
- Specialist veterinary institute Kraljevo, Zicka 34, Kraljevo, Serbia
| | - Alexandre Deshiere
- ANSES- Laboratory for Animal Health in Normandy, Physiopathology and Epidemiology of Equine Diseases Unit, Goustranville, France
| | - Aymeric Hans
- ANSES- Laboratory for Animal Health in Normandy, Physiopathology and Epidemiology of Equine Diseases Unit, Goustranville, France.
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Cursino AE, Lima MT, Nogueira MF, de Aguiar DM, Franco Luiz APM, Alves PA, Araujo Junior JP, Kroon EG. Identification of large genetic variations in the equine infectious anemia virus tat-gag genomic region. Transbound Emerg Dis 2020; 68:3424-3432. [PMID: 33283463 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.13946] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2020] [Revised: 09/15/2020] [Accepted: 12/01/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The aetiological agent of equine infectious anaemia (EIA) is the retrovirus equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV) that infects all members of the Equidae family. The EIA is widely disseminated in the Brazilian territory with a high seroprevalence in the Brazilian Pantanal and is mainly diagnosed using agar gel immunodiffusion (AGID). There are few complete EIAV genome sequences available in GenBank, which had an impact on molecular detection studies. In this study, we conducted molecular detection and sequencing of EIAV proviral DNA from Brazilian horses. We analysed the genomic region from exon 1 of tat to gag (tat-gag). Comparative serological tests, comprising AGID and two enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs), were also conducted. Of the 133 samples, 58 were positive in the tat-gag PCR, and 49 nucleotide sequences of 272 bp were obtained. Using this developed tat-gag PCR EIAV proviral DNA was detected in 7% of the AGID-negative samples and 26% of the AGID-negative samples were positive in at least one of the ELISA tests used. Using phylogenetic analysis, the Brazilian Pantanal EIAV sequences grouped in a different clade of EIAV sequences from other countries. Thus, the EIAV sequences can contribute to the knowledge of the tat-gag genomic region in the circulating viruses in the Brazilian Pantanal, in addition to providing new information about the genetic diversity. In addition, the serological results demonstrate the greater sensitivity of the ELISAs used in this study compared to AGID for EIA diagnosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreia Elisa Cursino
- Laboratório de Vírus, Departamento de Microbiologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brasil
| | - Maurício Teixeira Lima
- Laboratório de Vírus, Departamento de Microbiologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brasil
| | | | - Daniel Moura de Aguiar
- Laboratório de Virologia e Rickettsioses, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso, Cuiabá, MT, Brasil
| | | | | | | | - Erna Geessien Kroon
- Laboratório de Vírus, Departamento de Microbiologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brasil
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Comparative analysis of CpG islands in equine infectious anemia virus strains. Virus Genes 2020; 56:339-346. [PMID: 32239368 DOI: 10.1007/s11262-020-01749-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2019] [Accepted: 03/04/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Increasing evidence suggests that DNA methylation has key roles in the replication of retroviruses, including lentiviruses, and pathogenesis of diseases. However, the precise characteristics of CpG islands are not known for many retroviruses. In this study, we compared the distribution of CpG islands among strains of equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV), a lentivirus in the family Retroviridae and a model for HIV research. We identified CpG islands in 32 full-length EIAV genomic sequences obtained from the GenBank database using MethPrimer. Only one CpG island, from 100 to 120 bp, was identified in the genomes of EIAV strains DV10, DLV3-A, and DLV5-10 from China, V26 and V70 from Japan, and IRE H3, IRE F2, IRE F3, and IRE F4 from Ireland. Importantly, the CpG island was located within the Rev gene, which is required for the expression of viral cis-acting elements and the production of new virions. These results suggest that the distribution, length, and genetic properties of CpG islands differ among EIAV strains. Future research should focus on the biological significance of this CpG island within rev to improve our understanding of the precise roles of CpG islands in epigenetic regulation in the species.
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High Genomic Variability in Equine Infectious Anemia Virus Obtained from Naturally Infected Horses in Pantanal, Brazil: An Endemic Region Case. Viruses 2020; 12:v12020207. [PMID: 32059508 PMCID: PMC7077297 DOI: 10.3390/v12020207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2019] [Revised: 01/27/2020] [Accepted: 02/04/2020] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV) is a persistent lentivirus that causes equine infectious anemia (EIA). In Brazil, EIAV is endemic in the Pantanal region, and euthanasia is not mandatory in this area. All of the complete genomic sequences from field viruses are from North America, Asia, and Europe, and only proviral genomic sequences are available. Sequences from Brazilian EIAV are currently available only for gag and LTR regions. Thus, the present study aimed for the first time to sequence the entire EIAV genomic RNA in naturally infected horses from an endemic area in Brazil. RNA in plasma from naturally infected horses was used for next-generation sequencing (NGS), and gaps were filled using Sanger sequencing methodology. Complete viral genomes of EIAV from two horses were obtained and annotated (Access Number: MN560970 and MN560971). Putative genes were analyzed and compared with previously described genes, showing conservation in gag and pol genes and high variations in LTR and env sequences. Amino acid changes were identified in the p26 protein, one of the most common targets used for diagnosis, and p26 molecular modelling showed surface amino acid alterations in some epitopes. Brazilian genome sequences presented 88.6% nucleotide identity with one another and 75.8 to 77.3% with main field strains, such as EIAV Liaoning, Wyoming, Ireland, and Italy isolates. Furthermore, phylogenetic analysis suggested that this Brazilian strain comprises a separate monophyletic group. These results may help to better characterize EIAV and to overcome the challenges of diagnosing and controlling EIA in endemic regions.
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Cook SJ, Li G, Zheng Y, Willand ZA, Issel CJ, Cook RF. Molecular Characterization of the Major Open Reading Frames (ORFs) and Enhancer Elements From Four Geographically Distinct North American Equine Infectious Anemia Virus (EIAV) Isolates. J Equine Vet Sci 2019; 85:102852. [PMID: 31952638 DOI: 10.1016/j.jevs.2019.102852] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2019] [Revised: 10/01/2019] [Accepted: 11/08/2019] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Although the equine lentivirus (equine infectious anemia virus [EIAV]) poses a major threat to equid populations throughout most regions of the world, detailed knowledge concerning its molecular epidemiology is still in its infancy. Such information is important because the few studies conducted to date suggest there is extensive genetic variation between viral isolates that if confirmed has significant implications for future vaccine design and development of newer diagnostic procedures. Here, we avoid potential assembly artifacts inherent in composite sequencing techniques by using long-range PCR in conjunction with next-generation sequencing for the rapid molecular characterization of all major open reading frames (ORFs) and known transcription factor binding motifs within the long terminal repeats (LTRs) of four North American EIAV isolates from Pennsylvania (EIAVPA), Tennessee (EIAVTN), North Carolina (EIAVNC), and Florida (EIAVFL). These were compared with complete published EIAV field strain genomic sequences from Asia (EIAVLIA, EIAVMIY), Europe (EIAVIRE), and North America (EIAVWY) plus EIAVUK a laboratory variant of EIAVWY. Phylogenetic analysis using the long-range PCR products suggested all the New World EIAV isolates comprised a single monophyletic group associated with EIAVIRE. This is distinct from the Asian isolates and so consistent with known historical details concerning the reintroduction of equids into North America by European settlers. Nonetheless nucleotide sequence identity for example between EIAVPA and EIAVTN, EIAVNC, EIAVFL, EIAVWY, EIAVUK plus EIAVIRE was limited to 84.6%, 81.0%, 82.1%, 80.4%, 80.1%, and 77.6%, respectively, with some of these values being not too dissimilar to those between EIAVPA and EIAVLIA or EIAVMIY at 78.0% and 75.4%, respectively. Overall, these results suggest substantial genetic diversity exists even within North American EIAV isolates. Comparative alignment of predicted amino acid sequences from all strains provides increased understanding concerning the extent of permitted substitutions in each viral ORF and known transcriptional LTR control elements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheila J Cook
- Department of Veterinary Science, Maxwell-Gluck Equine Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY
| | - Ganwu Li
- NGS Unit, Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames, IA
| | - Ying Zheng
- NGS Unit, Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames, IA
| | - Zachary A Willand
- Department of Veterinary Science, Maxwell-Gluck Equine Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY
| | - Charles J Issel
- Department of Veterinary Science, Maxwell-Gluck Equine Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY
| | - R Frank Cook
- Department of Veterinary Science, Maxwell-Gluck Equine Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY.
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Deshiere A, Berthet N, Lecouturier F, Gaudaire D, Hans A. Molecular characterization of Equine Infectious Anemia Viruses using targeted sequence enrichment and next generation sequencing. Virology 2019; 537:121-129. [PMID: 31493650 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2019.08.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2019] [Revised: 08/13/2019] [Accepted: 08/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV) is responsible of acute disease episodes characterized by fever, anemia, thrombocytopenia and anorexia in equids. The high mutation rate in EIAV genome limited the number of full genome sequences availability. In the present study, we used the SureSelect target enrichment system with Illumina Next Generation Sequencing to characterize the proviral DNA of Equine Infectious Anemia Virus (EIAV) from asymptomatic horses. This approach allows a direct sequencing of the EIAV whole genome without cloning or amplification steps and we could obtain for the first time the complete genomic DNA sequences of French EIAV strains. We analyzed their phylogenetic relationship and genetic variability by comparison with 17 whole EIAV genome sequences from different parts of the world. The results obtained provide new insights into the molecular detection of EIAV and genetic diversity of European viral strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandre Deshiere
- ANSES- Laboratory for Animal Health in Normandy, Physiopathology and Epidemiology of Equine Diseases Unit, Goustranville, France
| | - Nicolas Berthet
- Institut Pasteur, Unité Environnement et Risques Infectieux, Cellule d'Intervention Biologique d'Urgence, Paris, France; Centre National de Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) UMR3569, Paris, France
| | - Fanny Lecouturier
- ANSES- Laboratory for Animal Health in Normandy, Physiopathology and Epidemiology of Equine Diseases Unit, Goustranville, France
| | - Delphine Gaudaire
- ANSES- Laboratory for Animal Health in Normandy, Physiopathology and Epidemiology of Equine Diseases Unit, Goustranville, France
| | - Aymeric Hans
- ANSES- Laboratory for Animal Health in Normandy, Physiopathology and Epidemiology of Equine Diseases Unit, Goustranville, France.
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Dorey-Robinson DLW, Locker N, Steinbach F, Choudhury B. Molecular characterization of equine infectious anaemia virus strains detected in England in 2010 and 2012. Transbound Emerg Dis 2019; 66:2311-2317. [PMID: 31267701 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.13286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2018] [Revised: 06/05/2019] [Accepted: 06/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Equine infectious anaemia virus (EIAV) is a retrovirus with worldwide distribution which is notifiable to the OIE. Despite its importance to the equine industry, most information regarding its biology have been obtained using only two strains (EIAVWYO and EIAVLIA ) from the USA and China, respectively. Recently full genome sequences from Ireland, Italy and Japan have been published; however, this is still not representative of the number of EIAV outbreaks experienced globally each year. The limited availability of published sequences makes design of a universal EIAV PCR difficult, hence diagnosis is solely reliant on serology. Accordingly, it is important to further investigate the re-emerging cases in other areas of the world. Here, we provide information regarding the outbreaks of EIA in England in 2010 and 2012 including the molecular characterization of strains. Full genome was obtained for two symptomatic cases but could not be resolved for the asymptomatic cases. The two British genomes from 2010 (EIAVDEV ) and 2012 (EIAVCOR ) each represent a new phylogenetic group, each differing genetically from the other available full genome sequences by 21.1%-25.5%. That the majority of new EIAV full genome sequences to be published adds another phylogenetic group indicates that the surface of EIAV global diversity is just being scratched. These data highlight that further work is needed to fully understand EIAV genetic diversity, namely the full genome sequencing of EIAV cases from a variety of locations and time points. This would aid both the use of phylogenetics in parallel with horse tracing as the epidemiological tool of disease tracking and the design of a universally applicable molecular diagnostic method.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Falko Steinbach
- Animal & Plant Health Agency, Addlestone, UK.,University of Surrey, Guildford, UK
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CAUSES OF DEATH AND DETECTION OF ANTIBODIES AGAINST JAPANESE ENCEPHALITIS VIRUS IN MISAKI FERAL HORSES ( EQUUS CABALLUS) IN SOUTHERN JAPAN, 2015-17. J Wildl Dis 2019. [PMID: 31112466 DOI: 10.7589/2018-10-265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
We performed postmortem examinations on seven Misaki feral horses (Equus caballus) and evaluated Misaki feral horses, Japanese wild boars (Sus scrofa leucomystax), domestic pigs (Sus scrofa), and wild Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata fuscata) from 2015 to 2017 in Cape Toi, Kushima, Miyazaki Prefecture, southern Japan, for antibodies against Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV). Strongylus vulgaris infection with severe arterial lesions and hemomelasma ilei was present in all necropsied horses. We frequently found intestinal ulcers, perihepatitis filamentosa, and poor body condition. We recorded degenerative arthropathy in metacarpophalangeal joints in two cases and a fracture of the rib with diaphragmatic rupture in one case. A total of 73% (177/242) of horses were seropositive for JEV as tested by hemagglutination inhibition (HI). The HI data also revealed that 74% (59/80) of the wild boars, 67% (60/90) of the pigs, and 29% (22/75) of the wild monkeys were seropositive for JEV. Our findings showed that Strongylus spp. are still a risk to horses in this region, and that environmental factors such as topographic location of the pasture and steep slope may have caused of degenerative arthropathy and bone fracture. Our results showed that JEV is endemic in Japan. The wild boars and pigs were presumed to act as strong amplifiers and sources of infection, with subsequent risk to humans.
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Naves JHF, Oliveira FG, Bicalho JM, Santos PS, Machado-de-Ávila RA, Chavez-Olortegui C, Leite RC, Reis JK. Serological diagnosis of equine infectious anemia in horses, donkeys and mules using an ELISA with a gp45 synthetic peptide as antigen. J Virol Methods 2019; 266:49-57. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2018.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2018] [Revised: 12/03/2018] [Accepted: 12/17/2018] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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12
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Cook RF, Barrandeguy M, Lee PYA, Tsai CF, Shen YH, Tsai YL, Chang HFG, Wang HTT, Balasuriya UBR. Rapid detection of equine infectious anaemia virus nucleic acid by insulated isothermal RT-PCR assay to aid diagnosis under field conditions. Equine Vet J 2018; 51:489-494. [PMID: 30353944 DOI: 10.1111/evj.13032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2017] [Accepted: 09/24/2018] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Control of equine infectious anaemia (EIA) currently depends on serological diagnosis of infected equids. However, recently infected equids may not produce detectable anti-EIAV antibodies up to 157 days post infection and so present a high transmission risk. Therefore, direct nucleic acid detection methods are urgently needed to improve EIAV surveillance and management programs in counties where the disease is endemic. OBJECTIVES To evaluate a field-deployable, reverse transcription-insulated isothermal PCR (RT-iiPCR) assay targeting the conserved 5' untranslated region (5' UTR)/exon 1 of the tat gene of EIAV. STUDY DESIGN The analytical and clinical performance of the newly developed EIAV RT-iiPCR was evaluated by comparison with a EIAV real-time RT-PCR (RT-qPCR) along with the AGID test. METHODS Analytical sensitivity was determined using in vitro transcribed RNA containing the target area of the 5' UTR/tat gene and samples from two EIAV-positive horses. Specificity was verified using nine common equine viruses. Clinical performance was evaluated by comparison with EIAV RT-qPCR and AGID using samples derived from 196 inapparent EIAV carrier horses. RESULTS EIAV RT-iiPCR did not react with other commonly encountered equine viruses and had equivalent sensitivity (95% detection limit of eight genome equivalents), with a concordance of 95.41% to conventional EIAV RT-qPCR. However, the RT-qPCR and RT-iiPCR had sensitivities of 43.75 and 50.00%, respectively, when compared to the AGID test. MAIN LIMITATIONS Low viral loads commonly encountered in inapparent EIAV carriers may limit the diagnostic sensitivity of RT-PCR-based tests. CONCLUSIONS Although EIAV RT-iiPCR is not sufficiently sensitive to replace the current AGID test, it can augment control efforts by identifying recently exposed or "serologically silent" equids, particularly as the latter often represent a significant transmission risk because of high viral loads. Furthermore, the relatively low cost and field-deployable design enable utilisation of EIAV RT-iiPCR even in remote regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- R F Cook
- Louisiana Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratory and Department of Pathobiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA
| | - M Barrandeguy
- Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA), Instituto de Virología, Argentina
| | - P-Y A Lee
- GeneReach USA, Lexington, Massachusetts, USA
| | - C-F Tsai
- GeneReach USA, Lexington, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Y-H Shen
- GeneReach USA, Lexington, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Y-L Tsai
- GeneReach USA, Lexington, Massachusetts, USA
| | - H-F G Chang
- GeneReach USA, Lexington, Massachusetts, USA
| | - H-T T Wang
- GeneReach USA, Lexington, Massachusetts, USA
| | - U B R Balasuriya
- Louisiana Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratory and Department of Pathobiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA
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13
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Cursino AE, Vilela APP, Franco-Luiz APM, de Oliveira JG, Nogueira MF, Júnior JPA, de Aguiar DM, Kroon EG. Equine infectious anemia virus in naturally infected horses from the Brazilian Pantanal. Arch Virol 2018; 163:2385-2394. [DOI: 10.1007/s00705-018-3877-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2018] [Accepted: 03/19/2018] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
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14
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Sharav T, Konnai S, Ochirkhuu N, Ts EO, Mekata H, Sakoda Y, Umemura T, Murata S, Chultemdorj T, Ohashi K. Detection and molecular characterization of equine infectious anemia virus in Mongolian horses. J Vet Med Sci 2017; 79:1884-1888. [PMID: 29021424 PMCID: PMC5709569 DOI: 10.1292/jvms.17-0202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
The genetic characterization and actual prevalence of EIAV in Mongolian horse in the disease endemic region is currently unknown. Here, 11 of 776 horse serum samples from four Mongolian provinces tested positive on agar gel
immunodiffusion test. Genomic DNA extracted from all seropositive samples was subjected to nested PCR assay. Among these, three samples tested positive with nested PCR assay and were identified by sequencing analysis based on long
termination repeat and tat gene of the virus. Two of the three sequences were identical, with 94.0% identity with the third. These two independent Mongolian EIAV sequences were retained functional motifs, with no
dramatic changes but some variability in the U5 region; they were clustered with genotypes from European countries but not with those from China, U.S.A., or Japan.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tumenjargal Sharav
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Public Health, School of Veterinary Medicine, Mongolian University of Life Science, Khan-Uul district, Zaisan 17042, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
| | - Satoru Konnai
- Department of Disease Control, Graduate School of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Hokkaido 060-0818, Japan
| | - Nyamsuren Ochirkhuu
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Public Health, School of Veterinary Medicine, Mongolian University of Life Science, Khan-Uul district, Zaisan 17042, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
| | - Erdene Ochir Ts
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Public Health, School of Veterinary Medicine, Mongolian University of Life Science, Khan-Uul district, Zaisan 17042, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
| | - Hirohisa Mekata
- Organization for Promotion of Tenure Track, University of Miyazaki, 1-1 Gakuen Kibanadai-nishi, Miyazaki 889-2192, Japan.,Center for Animal Disease Control, University of Miyazaki, 1-1 Gakuen Kibanadai-nishi, Miyazaki 889-2192, Japan
| | - Yoshihiro Sakoda
- Department of Disease Control, Graduate School of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Hokkaido 060-0818, Japan
| | - Takashi Umemura
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Public Health, School of Veterinary Medicine, Mongolian University of Life Science, Khan-Uul district, Zaisan 17042, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
| | - Shiro Murata
- Department of Disease Control, Graduate School of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Hokkaido 060-0818, Japan
| | - Tungalag Chultemdorj
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Public Health, School of Veterinary Medicine, Mongolian University of Life Science, Khan-Uul district, Zaisan 17042, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
| | - Kazuhiko Ohashi
- Department of Disease Control, Graduate School of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Hokkaido 060-0818, Japan
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15
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Wang HN, Rao D, Fu XQ, Hu MM, Dong JG. Equine infectious anemia virus in China. Oncotarget 2017; 9:1356-1364. [PMID: 29416700 PMCID: PMC5787444 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.20381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2017] [Accepted: 08/09/2017] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Equine infectious anemia is an equine disease caused by equine infectious anemia virus, which was first reported in 1840. Equine infectious anemia virus research in China started in the 1960s, focusing on etiology, pathology, diagnosis, and immunology. Notably, in 1978 an attenuated vaccine was successfully developed for equine infectious anemia virus, effectively preventing equine infectious anemia virus in China. This article will review equine infectious anemia virus in China, including past and recent research, and commemorate scientists who have made great contributions to equine infectious anemia virus prevention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hua-Nan Wang
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Animal Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Dan Rao
- School of Animal Husbandry and Medical Engineering, Xinyang Agriculture and Forestry University, Xinyang, China.,Guangdong Key Laboratory of Laboratory Animals, Guangdong Laboratory Animals Monitoring Institute, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xian-Qiu Fu
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, China
| | - Ming-Ming Hu
- Shanxi Provincial Animal Disease Control Center, Taiyuan, China
| | - Jian-Guo Dong
- School of Animal Husbandry and Medical Engineering, Xinyang Agriculture and Forestry University, Xinyang, China
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16
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Gaudaire D, Lecouturier F, Ponçon N, Morilland E, Laugier C, Zientara S, Hans A. Molecular characterization of equine infectious anaemia virus from a major outbreak in southeastern France. Transbound Emerg Dis 2017; 65:e7-e13. [PMID: 28503813 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.12657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2016] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
In 2009, a major outbreak of equine infectious anaemia (EIA) was reported in the south-east of France. This outbreak affected three premises located in the Var region where the index case, a 10-year-old mare that exhibited clinical signs consistent with EIA, occurred at a riding school. Overall, more than 250 horses were tested for EIAV (equine infectious anaemia virus) antibodies, using agar gel immunodiffusion test, and 16 horses were positive in three different holdings. Epidemiological survey confirmed that the three premises were related through the purchase/sale of horses and the use of shared or nearby pastures. Molecular characterization of viruses was performed by sequencing the full gag gene sequence (1,400 bp) of the proviral DNAs retrieved from the spleen of infected animals collected post-mortem. Phylogenetic analysis confirmed epidemiological data from the field, as viruses isolated from the three premises were clustering together suggesting a common origin whereas some premises were 50 km apart. Moreover, viruses characterized during this outbreak are different from European strains described so far, underlying the high genetic diversity of EIAV in Europe.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Gaudaire
- Virology Unit, ANSES-Dozulé Laboratory for Equine Diseases, Goustranville, France
| | - F Lecouturier
- Virology Unit, ANSES-Dozulé Laboratory for Equine Diseases, Goustranville, France
| | - N Ponçon
- Direction Générale de l'Alimentation, Ministère de l'Agriculture, Paris, France
| | - E Morilland
- Virology Unit, ANSES-Dozulé Laboratory for Equine Diseases, Goustranville, France
| | - C Laugier
- Virology Unit, ANSES-Dozulé Laboratory for Equine Diseases, Goustranville, France
| | - S Zientara
- Anses Maisons-Alfort Laboratory for Animal Health, UMR1161 Virologie, Université Paris-Est, Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - A Hans
- Virology Unit, ANSES-Dozulé Laboratory for Equine Diseases, Goustranville, France
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17
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Cappelli K, Cook RF, Stefanetti V, Passamonti F, Autorino GL, Scicluna MT, Coletti M, Verini Supplizi A, Capomaccio S. Deep sequencing and variant analysis of an Italian pathogenic field strain of equine infectious anaemia virus. Transbound Emerg Dis 2017; 64:2104-2112. [DOI: 10.1111/tbed.12631] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2016] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- K. Cappelli
- Dipartimento di Medicina Veterinaria - Centro di Studio del Cavallo Sportivo; Università degli Studi di Perugia; Perugia Italy
| | - R. F. Cook
- Department of Veterinary Science; Gluck Equine Research Center; University of Kentucky; Lexington KY USA
| | - V. Stefanetti
- Dipartimento di Medicina Veterinaria - Centro di Studio del Cavallo Sportivo; Università degli Studi di Perugia; Perugia Italy
| | - F. Passamonti
- Dipartimento di Medicina Veterinaria - Centro di Studio del Cavallo Sportivo; Università degli Studi di Perugia; Perugia Italy
| | - G. L. Autorino
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Regioni Lazio e Toscana; Rome Italy
| | - M. T. Scicluna
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Regioni Lazio e Toscana; Rome Italy
| | - M. Coletti
- Dipartimento di Medicina Veterinaria - Centro di Studio del Cavallo Sportivo; Università degli Studi di Perugia; Perugia Italy
| | - A. Verini Supplizi
- Dipartimento di Medicina Veterinaria - Centro di Studio del Cavallo Sportivo; Università degli Studi di Perugia; Perugia Italy
| | - S. Capomaccio
- Dipartimento di Medicina Veterinaria - Centro di Studio del Cavallo Sportivo; Università degli Studi di Perugia; Perugia Italy
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18
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Ricotti S, Garcia MI, Veaute C, Bailat A, Lucca E, Cook RF, Cook SJ, Soutullo A. Serologically silent, occult equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV) infections in horses. Vet Microbiol 2016; 187:41-49. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2016.03.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2015] [Revised: 03/07/2016] [Accepted: 03/10/2016] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Kuhar U, Malovrh T. High genetic diversity of equine infectious anaemia virus strains from Slovenia revealed upon phylogenetic analysis of the p15gaggene region. Equine Vet J 2015; 48:205-10. [DOI: 10.1111/evj.12404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2014] [Accepted: 12/17/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- U. Kuhar
- Veterinary Faculty; University of Ljubljana; Ljubljana Slovenia
| | - T. Malovrh
- Veterinary Faculty; University of Ljubljana; Ljubljana Slovenia
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20
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Issel CJ, Cook RF, Mealey RH, Horohov DW. Equine infectious anemia in 2014: live with it or eradicate it? Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract 2014; 30:561-77. [PMID: 25441114 DOI: 10.1016/j.cveq.2014.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022] Open
Abstract
In the absence of an effective vaccine, the success of the test and removal approach for the control of equine infectious anemia (EIA) cannot be overstated, at least in those areas where testing has been traditionally routine. This article addresses 4 main aspects: what has been learned about EIA virus, host control of its replication, and inapparent carriers; international status regarding the control of EIA; diagnostic and laboratory investigation; and reducing the spread of blood-borne infections by veterinarians. An attempt is made to put these issues into practical contemporary perspectives for the equine practitioner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles J Issel
- Department of Veterinary Science, Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40546, USA.
| | - R Frank Cook
- Department of Veterinary Science, Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40546, USA
| | - Robert H Mealey
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, PO Box 647040, Pullman, WA 99164-7040, USA
| | - David W Horohov
- Department of Veterinary Science, Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40546, USA
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21
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Yin X, Guo M, Gu Q, Wu X, Wei P, Wang X. Antiviral potency and functional analysis of tetherin orthologues encoded by horse and donkey. Virol J 2014; 11:151. [PMID: 25158826 PMCID: PMC4152588 DOI: 10.1186/1743-422x-11-151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2014] [Accepted: 08/22/2014] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Tetherin is an interferon-inducible host cell factor that blocks the viral particle release of the enveloped viruses. Most knowledge regarding the interaction between tetherin and viruses has been obtained using the primate lentiviral system. However, much less is known about the functional roles of tetherin on other lentiviruses. Equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV) is an important macrophage-tropic lentivirus that has been widely used as a practical model for investigating the evolution of the host-virus relationship. The host range of EIAV is reported to include all members of the Equidae family. However, EIAV has different clinical responses in horse and donkey. It’s intriguing to investigate the similarities and differences between the tetherin orthologues encoded by horse and donkey. Results We report here that there are two equine tetherin orthologues. Compared to horse tetherin, there are three valine amino acid deletions within the transmembrane domain and three distinct mutations within the ectodomain of donkey tetherin. However, the antiviral activity of donkey tetherin was not affected by amino acid deletion or substitution. In addition, both tetherin orthologues encoded by horse and donkey are similarly sensitive to EIAV Env protein, and equally activate NF-κB signaling. Conclusion Our data suggest that both tetherin orthologues encoded by horse and donkey showed similar antiviral activities and abilities to induce NF-κB signaling. In addition, the phenomenon about the differential responses of horses and donkeys to infection with EIAV was not related with the differences in the structure of the corresponding tetherin orthologues.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Ping Wei
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China.
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22
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Comparative analysis of LTR and structural genes in an equine infectious anemia virus strain isolated from a feral horse in Japan. Arch Virol 2014; 159:3413-20. [DOI: 10.1007/s00705-014-2206-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2014] [Accepted: 08/17/2014] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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23
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Equine infectious anemia virus in Japan: viral isolates V70 and V26 are of North American not Japanese origin. Vet Microbiol 2014; 174:276-8. [PMID: 25265930 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2014.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2014] [Revised: 08/04/2014] [Accepted: 08/05/2014] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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24
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Yin X, Lin Y, Cai W, Wei P, Wang X. Comprehensive analysis of the overall codon usage patterns in equine infectious anemia virus. Virol J 2013; 10:356. [PMID: 24359511 PMCID: PMC3878193 DOI: 10.1186/1743-422x-10-356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2013] [Accepted: 12/11/2013] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV) is an important animal model for understanding the relationship between viral persistence and the host immune response during lentiviral infections. Comparison and analysis of the codon usage model between EIAV and its hosts is important for the comprehension of viral evolution. In our study, the codon usage pattern of EIAV was analyzed from the available 29 full-length EIAV genomes through multivariate statistical methods. Finding Effective number of codons (ENC) suggests that the codon usage among EIAV strains is slightly biased. The ENC-plot analysis demonstrates that mutation pressure plays a substantial role in the codon usage pattern of EIAV, whereas other factors such as geographic distribution and host translation selection also take part in the process of EIAV evolution. Comparative analysis of codon adaptation index (CAI) values among EIAV and its hosts suggests that EIAV utilize the translational resources of horse more efficiently than that of donkey. Conclusion The codon usage bias in EIAV is slight and mutation pressure is the main factor that affects codon usage variation in EIAV. These results suggest that EIAV genomic biases are the result of the co-evolution of genome composition and the ability to evade the host’s immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Ping Wei
- Division of Livestock Infectious Diseases, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150001, PR China.
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25
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van Maanen C. Progressive control of equine infectious anaemia through more accurate diagnosis. Vet Rec 2013; 172:208-9. [DOI: 10.1136/vr.f1131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- C. van Maanen
- GD Animal Health Service; Arnsbergstraat 7 7418 EZ Deventer The Netherlands
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