1
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Tsai JM, Nowak RP, Ebert BL, Fischer ES. Targeted protein degradation: from mechanisms to clinic. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 2024; 25:740-757. [PMID: 38684868 DOI: 10.1038/s41580-024-00729-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/21/2024] [Indexed: 05/02/2024]
Abstract
Targeted protein degradation refers to the use of small molecules to induce the selective degradation of proteins. In its most common form, this degradation is achieved through ligand-mediated neo-interactions between ubiquitin E3 ligases - the principal waste disposal machines of a cell - and the protein targets of interest, resulting in ubiquitylation and subsequent proteasomal degradation. Notable advances have been made in biological and mechanistic understanding of serendipitously discovered degraders. This improved understanding and novel chemistry has not only provided clinical proof of concept for targeted protein degradation but has also led to rapid growth of the field, with dozens of investigational drugs in active clinical trials. Two distinct classes of protein degradation therapeutics are being widely explored: bifunctional PROTACs and molecular glue degraders, both of which have their unique advantages and challenges. Here, we review the current landscape of targeted protein degradation approaches and how they have parallels in biological processes. We also outline the ongoing clinical exploration of novel degraders and provide some perspectives on the directions the field might take.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan M Tsai
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA, USA
- Broad Institute of Harvard and MIT, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Radosław P Nowak
- Department of Cancer Biology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
- Institute of Structural Biology, Medical Faculty, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Benjamin L Ebert
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA, USA.
- Broad Institute of Harvard and MIT, Cambridge, MA, USA.
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Boston, MA, USA.
| | - Eric S Fischer
- Department of Cancer Biology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA, USA.
- Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
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2
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Yang J, Zhang L, He X, Gou X, Zong Z, Luo Y. In vitro and in vivo enhancement effect of glabridin on the antibacterial activity of colistin, against multidrug resistant Escherichia coli strains. PHYTOMEDICINE : INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PHYTOTHERAPY AND PHYTOPHARMACOLOGY 2024; 130:155732. [PMID: 38776738 DOI: 10.1016/j.phymed.2024.155732] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2024] [Revised: 04/19/2024] [Accepted: 05/10/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The increase in antimicrobial resistance leads to complications in treatments, prolonged hospitalization, and increased mortality. Glabridin (GLA) is a hydroxyisoflavan from Glycyrrhiza glabra L. that exhibits multiple pharmacological activities. Colistin (COL), a last-resort antibiotic, is increasingly being used in clinic against Gram-negative bacteria. Previous reports have shown that GLA is able to sensitize first line antibiotics such as norfloxacin and vancomycin on Staphylococcus aureus, implying that the use of GLA as an antibiotic adjuvant is a promising strategy for addressing the issue of drug resistance. However, the adjuvant effect on other antibiotics, especially COL, on Gram-negative bacteria such as Escherichia coli has not been studied. PURPOSE The objective of our study was to investigate the targets of GLA and the synergistic effect of GLA and COL in E. coli, and to provide further evidence for the use of GLA as an antibiotic adjuvant to alleviate the problem of drug resistance. METHODS We first investigated the interaction between GLA and enoyl-acyl carrier protein reductase, also called "FabI", through enzyme inhibition assay, differential scanning fluorimetry, isothermal titration calorimetry and molecular docking assay. We tested the transmembrane capacity of GLA on its own and combined it with several antibiotics. The antimicrobial activities of GLA and COL were evaluated against six different susceptible and resistant E. coli in vitro. Their interactions were analyzed using checkerboard assay, time-kill curve and CompuSyn software. A series of sensitivity tests was conducted in E. coli overexpressing the fabI gene. The development of COL resistance in the presence of GLA was tested. The antimicrobial efficacy of GLA and COL in a mouse model of urinary tract infection was assessed. The anti-biofilm effects of GLA and COL were investigated. RESULTS In this study, enzyme kinetic analysis and thermal analysis provided evidence for the interaction between GLA and FabI in E. coli. GLA enhanced the antimicrobial effect of COL and synergistically suppressed six different susceptible and resistant E. coli with COL. Overexpression experiments showed that targeted inhibition of FabI was a key mechanism by which GLA synergistically enhanced COL activity. The combination of GLA and COL slowed the development of COL resistance in E. coli. Combined GLA and COL treatment significantly reduced bacterial load and mitigated urinary tract injury in a mouse model of E. coli urinary tract infection. Additionally, GLA + COL inhibited the formation and eradication of biofilms and the synthesis of curli. CONCLUSION Our findings indicate that GLA synergistically enhances antimicrobial activities of COL by targeting inhibition of FabI in E. coli. GLA is expected to continue to be developed as an antibiotic adjuvant to address drug resistance issues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiaxing Yang
- Center of Infectious Diseases and State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Laiying Zhang
- Center of Infectious Diseases and State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Xinlian He
- Laboratory of Human Diseases and Immunotherapy, and State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy/Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Xupeng Gou
- Center of Infectious Diseases and State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Zhiyong Zong
- Center of Infectious Diseases, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Youfu Luo
- Center of Infectious Diseases and State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China.
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3
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Hassanzadeh A, Shomali N, Kamrani A, Soltani-Zangbar MS, Nasiri H, Akbari M. Cancer therapy by cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors (CDKIs): bench to bedside. EXCLI JOURNAL 2024; 23:862-882. [PMID: 38983782 PMCID: PMC11231458 DOI: 10.17179/excli2024-7076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2024] [Accepted: 03/06/2024] [Indexed: 07/11/2024]
Abstract
A major characteristic of cancer is dysregulated cell division, which results in aberrant growth of cells. Consequently, medicinal targets that prevent cell division would be useful in the fight against cancer. The primary regulator of proliferation is a complex consisting of cyclin and cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs). The FDA has granted approval for CDK inhibitors (CDKIs) to treat metastatic hormone receptor-positive breast cancer. Specifically, CDK4/6 CDKIs block the enzyme activity of CDK4 and CDK6. Unfortunately, the majority of first-generation CDK inhibitors, also known as pan-CDK inhibitors because they target multiple CDKs, have not been authorized for clinical use owing to their serious side effects and lack of selection. In contrast to this, significant advancements have been created to permit the use of pan-CDK inhibitors in therapeutic settings. Notably, the toxicity and negative consequences of pan-CDK inhibitors have been lessened in recent years thanks to the emergence of combination therapy tactics. Therefore, pan-CDK inhibitors have renewed promise for clinical use when used in a combination regimen. The members of the CDK family have been reviewed and their primary roles in cell cycle regulation were covered in this review. Next, we provided an overview of the state of studies on CDK inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali Hassanzadeh
- Department of Applied Cell Sciences, School of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Navid Shomali
- Department of Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
- Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Amin Kamrani
- Department of Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
- Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Mohammad Sadegh Soltani-Zangbar
- Department of Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
- Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Hadi Nasiri
- Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Morteza Akbari
- Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, Faculty of Advanced Medical Sciences, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
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4
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Lemaitre T, Cornu M, Schwalen F, Since M, Kieffer C, Voisin-Chiret AS. Molecular glue degraders: exciting opportunities for novel drug discovery. Expert Opin Drug Discov 2024; 19:433-449. [PMID: 38240114 DOI: 10.1080/17460441.2024.2306845] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2023] [Accepted: 01/15/2024] [Indexed: 01/25/2024]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Molecular Glue Degraders (MGDs) is a concept that refers to a class of compounds that facilitate the interaction between two proteins or molecules within a cell. These compounds act as bridge that enhances specific Protein-Protein Interactions (PPIs). Over the past decade, this technology has gained attention as a potential strategy to target proteins that were traditionally considered undruggable using small molecules. AREAS COVERED This review presents the concept of cellular homeostasis and the balance between protein synthesis and protein degradation. The concept of protein degradation is concerned with molecular glues, which form part of the broader field of Targeted Protein Degradation (TPD). Next, pharmacochemical strategies for the rational design of MGDs are detailed and illustrated by examples of Ligand-Based (LBDD), Structure-Based (SBDD) and Fragment-Based Drug Design (FBDD). EXPERT OPINION Expanding the scope of what can be effectively targeted in the development of treatments for diseases that are incurable or resistant to conventional therapies offers new therapeutic options. The treatment of microbial infections and neurodegenerative diseases is a major societal challenge, and the discovery of MGDs appears to be a promising avenue. Combining different approaches to discover and exploit a variety of innovative therapeutic agents will create opportunities to treat diseases that are still incurable.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Marie Cornu
- Normandie University, UNICAEN, CERMN, Caen, France
| | - Florian Schwalen
- Normandie University, UNICAEN, CERMN, Caen, France
- Department of Pharmacy, Caen University Hospital, Caen, France
| | - Marc Since
- Normandie University, UNICAEN, CERMN, Caen, France
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5
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Winter GE, Mayor-Ruiz C. Proximity-inducing pharmacology. Nat Chem Biol 2024; 20:13-14. [PMID: 37978259 DOI: 10.1038/s41589-023-01492-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Georg E Winter
- Research Center for Molecular Medicine (CeMM), Austrian Academy of Sciences, Vienna, Austria.
| | - Cristina Mayor-Ruiz
- Institute for Research in Biomedicine (IRB) Barcelona, Barcelona Institute of Technology (BIST), Barcelona, Spain.
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6
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Gibson WJ, Sadagopan A, Shoba VM, Choudhary A, Meyerson M, Schreiber SL. Bifunctional Small Molecules That Induce Nuclear Localization and Targeted Transcriptional Regulation. J Am Chem Soc 2023; 145:26028-26037. [PMID: 37992275 PMCID: PMC10704550 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.3c06179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2023] [Revised: 11/06/2023] [Accepted: 11/06/2023] [Indexed: 11/24/2023]
Abstract
The aberrant localization of proteins in cells is a key factor in the development of various diseases, including cancer and neurodegenerative disease. To better understand and potentially manipulate protein localization for therapeutic purposes, we engineered bifunctional compounds that bind to proteins in separate cellular compartments. We show these compounds induce nuclear import of cytosolic cargoes, using nuclear-localized BRD4 as a "carrier" for co-import and nuclear trapping of cytosolic proteins. We use this system to calculate kinetic constants for passive diffusion across the nuclear pore and demonstrate single-cell heterogeneity in response to these bifunctional molecules with cells requiring high carrier to cargo expression for complete import. We also observe incorporation of cargo into BRD4-containing condensates. Proteins shown to be substrates for nuclear transport include oncogenic mutant nucleophosmin (NPM1c) and mutant PI3K catalytic subunit alpha (PIK3CAE545K), suggesting potential applications to cancer treatment. In addition, we demonstrate that chemically induced localization of BRD4 to cytosolic-localized DNA-binding proteins, namely, IRF1 with a nuclear export signal, induces target gene expression. These results suggest that induced localization of proteins with bifunctional molecules enables the rewiring of cell circuitry, with significant implications for disease therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- William J. Gibson
- Broad
Institute of Harvard and MIT, 415 Main Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, United States
- Dana
Farber Cancer Institute, 450 Brookline Ave, Boston, Massachusetts 02215, United States
- Department of Medicine and Department of
Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Ananthan Sadagopan
- Broad
Institute of Harvard and MIT, 415 Main Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, United States
- Dana
Farber Cancer Institute, 450 Brookline Ave, Boston, Massachusetts 02215, United States
| | - Veronika M. Shoba
- Broad
Institute of Harvard and MIT, 415 Main Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, United States
| | - Amit Choudhary
- Broad
Institute of Harvard and MIT, 415 Main Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, United States
- Divisions
of Renal Medicine and Engineering, Brigham
and Women’s Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Matthew Meyerson
- Broad
Institute of Harvard and MIT, 415 Main Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, United States
- Dana
Farber Cancer Institute, 450 Brookline Ave, Boston, Massachusetts 02215, United States
- Department of Medicine and Department of
Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Stuart L. Schreiber
- Broad
Institute of Harvard and MIT, 415 Main Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, United States
- Department
of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard
University, 12 Oxford
Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
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7
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Ma Z, Bolinger AA, Chen H, Zhou J. Drug Discovery Targeting Nuclear Receptor Binding SET Domain Protein 2 (NSD2). J Med Chem 2023; 66:10991-11026. [PMID: 37578463 PMCID: PMC11092389 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.3c00948] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/15/2023]
Abstract
Nuclear receptor binding SET domain proteins (NSDs) catalyze the mono- or dimethylation of histone 3 lysine 36 (H3K36me1 and H3K36me2), using S-adenosyl-l-methionine (SAM) as a methyl donor. As a key member of the NSD family of proteins, NSD2 plays an important role in the pathogenesis and progression of various diseases such as cancers, inflammations, and infectious diseases, serving as a promising drug target. Developing potent and specific NSD2 inhibitors may provide potential novel therapeutics. Several NSD2 inhibitors and degraders have been discovered while remaining in the early stage of drug development. Excitingly, KTX-1001, a selective NSD2 inhibitor, has entered clinical trials. In this Perspective, the structures and functions of NSD2, its roles in various human diseases, and the recent advances in drug discovery strategies targeting NSD2 have been summarized. The challenges, opportunities, and future directions for developing NSD2 inhibitors and degraders are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zonghui Ma
- Chemical Biology Program, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Texas Medical Branch (UTMB), Galveston, Texas 77555, United States
| | - Andrew A Bolinger
- Chemical Biology Program, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Texas Medical Branch (UTMB), Galveston, Texas 77555, United States
| | - Haiying Chen
- Chemical Biology Program, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Texas Medical Branch (UTMB), Galveston, Texas 77555, United States
| | - Jia Zhou
- Chemical Biology Program, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Texas Medical Branch (UTMB), Galveston, Texas 77555, United States
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8
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Zhao C, Wang H, Zhan W, Lv X, Ma X. Exploitation of Proximity-Mediated Effects in Drug Discovery: An Update of Recent Research Highlights in Perturbing Pathogenic Proteins and Correlated Issues. J Med Chem 2023; 66:10122-10149. [PMID: 37489834 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.3c00079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/26/2023]
Abstract
The utilization of proximity-mediated effects to perturb pathogenic proteins of interest (POIs) has emerged as a powerful strategic alternative to conventional drug design approaches based on target occupancy. Over the past three years, the burgeoning field of targeted protein degradation (TPD) has witnessed the expansion of degradable POIs to membrane-associated, extracellular, proteasome-resistant, and even microbial proteins. Beyond TPD, researchers have achieved the proximity-mediated targeted protein stabilization, the recruitment of intracellular immunophilins to disturb undruggable targets, and the nonphysiological post-translational modifications of POIs. All of these strides provide new avenues for innovative drug discovery aimed at battling human malignancies and other major diseases. This perspective presents recent research highlights and discusses correlated issues in developing therapeutic modalities that exploit proximity-mediated effects to modulate pathogenic proteins, thereby guiding future academic and industrial efforts in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Can Zhao
- School of Pharmacy, Anhui University of Chinese Medicine, Hefei 230012, China
| | - Henian Wang
- School of Pharmacy, Anhui University of Chinese Medicine, Hefei 230012, China
| | - Wenhu Zhan
- iCarbonX (Shenzhen) Co., Ltd., Shenzhen, 518000, China
| | - Xiaoqing Lv
- College of Medicine, Jiaxing University, Jiaxing 314001, China
| | - Xiaodong Ma
- School of Pharmacy, Anhui University of Chinese Medicine, Hefei 230012, China
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9
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Liu X, Ciulli A. Proximity-Based Modalities for Biology and Medicine. ACS CENTRAL SCIENCE 2023; 9:1269-1284. [PMID: 37521793 PMCID: PMC10375889 DOI: 10.1021/acscentsci.3c00395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2023] [Indexed: 08/01/2023]
Abstract
Molecular proximity orchestrates biological function, and blocking existing proximities is an established therapeutic strategy. By contrast, strengthening or creating neoproximity with chemistry enables modulation of biological processes with high selectivity and has the potential to substantially expand the target space. A plethora of proximity-based modalities to target proteins via diverse approaches have recently emerged, opening opportunities for biopharmaceutical innovation. This Outlook outlines the diverse mechanisms and molecules based on induced proximity, including protein degraders, blockers, and stabilizers, inducers of protein post-translational modifications, and agents for cell therapy, and discusses opportunities and challenges that the field must address to mature and unlock translation in biology and medicine.
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10
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Serebrenik YV, Mani D, Maujean T, Burslem GM, Shalem O. Pooled endogenous protein tagging and recruitment for scalable discovery of effectors for induced proximity therapeutics. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.07.13.548759. [PMID: 37503056 PMCID: PMC10369964 DOI: 10.1101/2023.07.13.548759] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/29/2023]
Abstract
The field of induced proximity therapeutics is in its ascendancy but is limited by a lack of scalable tools to systematically explore effector-target protein pairs in an unbiased manner. Here, we combined Scalable POoled Targeting with a LIgandable Tag at Endogenous Sites (SPOTLITES) for the high-throughput tagging of endogenous proteins, with generic small molecule-based protein recruitment to screen for novel proximity-based effectors. We apply this methodology in two orthogonal screens for targeted protein degradation: the first using fluorescence to monitor target protein levels directly, and the second using a cellular growth phenotype that depends on the degradation of an essential protein. Our screens revealed a multitude of potential new effector proteins for degradation and converged on members of the CTLH complex which we demonstrate potently induce degradation. Altogether, we introduce a platform for pooled induction of endogenous protein-protein interactions that can be used to expand our toolset of effector proteins for targeted protein degradation and other forms of induced proximity.
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11
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Gibson WJ, Sadagopan A, Shoba VM, Choudhary A, Meyerson M, Schreiber SL. Bifunctional small molecules that induce nuclear localization and targeted transcriptional regulation. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.07.07.548101. [PMID: 37461636 PMCID: PMC10350064 DOI: 10.1101/2023.07.07.548101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/23/2023]
Abstract
The aberrant localization of proteins in cells is a key factor in the development of various diseases, including cancer and neurodegenerative disease. To better understand and potentially manipulate protein localization for therapeutic purposes, we engineered bifunctional compounds that bind to proteins in separate cellular compartments. We show these compounds induce nuclear import of cytosolic cargoes, using nuclear-localized BRD4 as a "carrier" for co-import and nuclear trapping of cytosolic proteins. We use this system to calculate kinetic constants for passive diffusion across the nuclear pore and demonstrate single-cell heterogeneity in response to these bifunctional molecules, with cells requiring high carrier to cargo expression for complete import. We also observe incorporation of cargoes into BRD4-containing condensates. Proteins shown to be substrates for nuclear transport include oncogenic mutant nucleophosmin (NPM1c) and mutant PI3K catalytic subunit alpha (PIK3CAE545K), suggesting potential applications to cancer treatment. In addition, we demonstrate that chemical-induced localization of BRD4 to cytosolic-localized DNA-binding proteins, namely, IRF1 with a nuclear export signal, induces target gene expression. These results suggest that induced localization of proteins with bifunctional molecules enables the rewiring of cell circuitry with significant implications for disease therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- William J Gibson
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, USA
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts 02215, USA
- Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA
| | - Ananthan Sadagopan
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, USA
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts 02215, USA
| | - Veronika M Shoba
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, USA
| | - Amit Choudhary
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, USA
- Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA
- Divisions of Renal Medicine and Engineering, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA
| | - Matthew Meyerson
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, USA
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts 02215, USA
- Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA
- Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA
| | - Stuart L Schreiber
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, USA
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA
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