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Cetintas SC, Akyol S, Alizada O, Akgun MY, Tahmazoglu B, Hanci M, Isler C. The Relationship Between Inflammatory Processes and Apoptosis in Lumbar Disc Degeneration. World Neurosurg 2024; 186:e261-e272. [PMID: 38548052 DOI: 10.1016/j.wneu.2024.03.121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2024] [Revised: 03/20/2024] [Accepted: 03/21/2024] [Indexed: 04/20/2024]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Degenerative Disc Disease (DDD) is a common health problem in the population. There are recent studies focusing on relationship between DDD and immunological factors. However, there is still a lack of data on the role of apoptosis in DDD pathophysiology. Therefore, we aimed to investigate the relationship between Modic-type changes and the apoptosis in DDD. MATERIALS AND METHODS Ninety adult male patients who presented with low back and/or radicular pain and were operated on due to lumbar disc herniation were included. Three groups were formed based on Modic type degeneration observed on magnetic resonance imaging. Specific parameters involved in the intrinsic and extrinsic pathways of apoptosis were assessed in excised disc materials using the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay method. RESULTS All three groups formed according to Modic degeneration types were homogenous in all variances. Cytochrome-C was significantly decreased only in the Modic type-3 group, whereas Tumor Necrosis Factor-Related Apoptosis-Inducing Ligand Receptor-1, B-Cell Lymphoma-2 (Bcl-2) Homologous Antagonist Killer-1, Direct Inhibitor of Apoptosis-Binding Protein with Low Pi, and Bcl-2 Associated X Apoptosis Regulator levels were significantly different in both Modic type-2 and -3 groups. However, BH3 interacting domain death agonist and Bcl-2 levels were similar across all groups. CONCLUSIONS In conclusion, this study suggests that Direct Inhibitor of Apoptosis-Binding Protein with Low Pi, cytochrome - c, Bcl-2 Associated X Apoptosis Regulator, Bcl-2 Homologous Antagonist Killer-1, and Tumor Necrosis Factor-Related Apoptosis-Inducing Ligand Receptor-1proteins play important roles in the development and progression of DDD and are correlated with Modic types. Further studies are needed to explore the potential therapeutic role of inhibiting these apoptotic proteins in DDD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Semih Can Cetintas
- Department of Neurosurgery, Turkish Ministry of Health, Bitlis State Hospital, Bitlis, Turkey
| | - Sibel Akyol
- Department of Physiology, Istanbul University-Cerrahpasa, Cerrahpasa Medical School, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Orkhan Alizada
- Department of Neurosurgery, Baskent University, School of Medicine, Istanbul, Turkey
| | | | - Burak Tahmazoglu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Istanbul University-Cerrahpasa, Cerrahpasa Medical School, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Murat Hanci
- Department of Neurosurgery, Istanbul University-Cerrahpasa, Cerrahpasa Medical School, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Cihan Isler
- Department of Neurosurgery, Istanbul University-Cerrahpasa, Cerrahpasa Medical School, Istanbul, Turkey.
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Zhou Z, Zou L, Guan Y, Jiang L, Liu Y, Zhang X, Huang X, Ren H, Li Z, Niu H, Liao H, Zhang X, Pan H, Rong S, Ma H. Survivin as a potential biomarker in the diagnosis of bladder cancer: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Urol Oncol 2024; 42:133-143. [PMID: 38418270 DOI: 10.1016/j.urolonc.2024.01.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2023] [Revised: 01/06/2024] [Accepted: 01/15/2024] [Indexed: 03/01/2024]
Abstract
Early detection, diagnosis, and treatment take on critical significance in preventing and treating bladder cancer. As indicated by numerous studies, survivin can serve as a biomarker of bladder cancer, whereas the results of a wide variety of studies have been controversial. This paper is to assess the accuracy of survivin in the diagnosis of bladder cancer by a meta-analysis. The studies regarding the diagnosis of bladder cancer using survivin were systematically retrieved from the CNKI, WanFang, CBM, VIP, Web of science, cochrane library and pubmed were extracted, and the literature quality was assessed. Meta-analysis was conducted using STATA 16.0 MP. 2,082 relevant studies were searched, and 40 studies were finally covered for meta-analysis. The pooled specificity and pooled sensitivity of survivin mRNA was 0.95 (95%CI: 0.91, 0.97) and 0.94 (95%CI: 0.88, 0.97). The pooled specificity and pooled sensitivity of survivin protein reached 0.95 (95%CI: 0.90, 0.97) and 0.87 (95%CI: 0.78, 0.92). The pooled positive likelihood ratio, pooled negative likelihood ratio, the area under the curve, and diagnostic odds ratio for survivin mRNA reached 17.7 (95%CI: 10.3, 30.6), 0.07 (95%CI: 0.04, 0.12), 0.98 (95%CI: 0.97, 0.99) and 266 (95%CI: 114, 621), respectively. For survivin protein was 16.4 (95%CI: 7.9, 33.9), 0.14 (95%CI: 0.08, 0.24), 0.97 (95%CI: 0.95, 0.98) and 117 (95%CI: 38, 357), respectively. Survivin takes on great significance in diagnosing bladder cancer. However, due to some limitations in the number and quality of covered studies, this conclusion should be validated through additional higher quality clinical studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiren Zhou
- Public Health School, Mudanjiang Medical University, Mudanjiang, China
| | - Lina Zou
- Nursing School, Mudanjiang Medical University, Mudanjiang, China
| | - Yue Guan
- Heilongjiang Nursing College, Harbin, China
| | - Lizhe Jiang
- Public Health School, Mudanjiang Medical University, Mudanjiang, China
| | - Yanan Liu
- Public Health School, Mudanjiang Medical University, Mudanjiang, China
| | - Xueqing Zhang
- Public Health School, Mudanjiang Medical University, Mudanjiang, China
| | - Xiaojing Huang
- Public Health School, Mudanjiang Medical University, Mudanjiang, China
| | - Huanyu Ren
- Public Health School, Mudanjiang Medical University, Mudanjiang, China
| | - Zheng Li
- Public Health School, Mudanjiang Medical University, Mudanjiang, China
| | - Huiru Niu
- Public Health School, Mudanjiang Medical University, Mudanjiang, China
| | - Hao Liao
- Public Health School, Mudanjiang Medical University, Mudanjiang, China
| | - Xiaojing Zhang
- Public Health School, Mudanjiang Medical University, Mudanjiang, China
| | - Hongzhi Pan
- Collaborative Research Center, Shanghai University of Medicine and Health Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Shengzhong Rong
- Public Health School, Mudanjiang Medical University, Mudanjiang, China.
| | - Hongkun Ma
- Public Health School, Mudanjiang Medical University, Mudanjiang, China.
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Mycoplasma hominis Causes DNA Damage and Cell Death in Primary Human Keratinocytes. Microorganisms 2022; 10:microorganisms10101962. [PMID: 36296238 PMCID: PMC9608843 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms10101962] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2022] [Revised: 09/16/2022] [Accepted: 09/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycoplasma hominis can be isolated from the human urogenital tract. However, its interaction with the host remains poorly understood. In this study, we aimed to assess the effects of M. hominis infection on primary human keratinocytes (PHKs). Cells were quantified at different phases of the cell cycle. Proteins involved in cell cycle regulation and apoptosis progression were evaluated. The expression of genes encoding proteins that are associated with the DNA damage response and Toll-like receptor pathways was evaluated, and the cytokines involved in inflammatory responses were quantified. A greater number of keratinocytes were observed in the Sub-G0/G1 phase after infection with M. hominis. In the viable keratinocytes, infection resulted in G2/M-phase arrest; GADD45A expression was increased, as was the expression of proteins such as p53, p27, and p21 and others involved in apoptosis regulation and oxidative stress. In infected PHKs, the expression of genes associated with the Toll-like receptor pathways showed a change, and the production of IFN-γ, interleukin (IL) 1β, IL-18, IL-6, and tumour necrosis factor alpha increased. The infection of PHKs by M. hominis causes cellular damage that can affect the cell cycle by activating the response pathways to cellular damage, oxidative stress, and Toll-like receptors. Overall, this response culminated in the reduction of cell proliferation/viability in vitro.
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Chemotherapy Resistance: Role of Mitochondrial and Autophagic Components. Cancers (Basel) 2022; 14:cancers14061462. [PMID: 35326612 PMCID: PMC8945922 DOI: 10.3390/cancers14061462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2022] [Revised: 03/10/2022] [Accepted: 03/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Chemotherapy resistance is a common occurrence during cancer treatment that cancer researchers are attempting to understand and overcome. Mitochondria are a crucial intracellular signaling core that are becoming important determinants of numerous aspects of cancer genesis and progression, such as metabolic reprogramming, metastatic capability, and chemotherapeutic resistance. Mitophagy, or selective autophagy of mitochondria, can influence both the efficacy of tumor chemotherapy and the degree of drug resistance. Regardless of the fact that mitochondria are well-known for coordinating ATP synthesis from cellular respiration in cellular bioenergetics, little is known its mitophagy regulation in chemoresistance. Recent advancements in mitochondrial research, mitophagy regulatory mechanisms, and their implications for our understanding of chemotherapy resistance are discussed in this review. Abstract Cancer chemotherapy resistance is one of the most critical obstacles in cancer therapy. One of the well-known mechanisms of chemotherapy resistance is the change in the mitochondrial death pathways which occur when cells are under stressful situations, such as chemotherapy. Mitophagy, or mitochondrial selective autophagy, is critical for cell quality control because it can efficiently break down, remove, and recycle defective or damaged mitochondria. As cancer cells use mitophagy to rapidly sweep away damaged mitochondria in order to mediate their own drug resistance, it influences the efficacy of tumor chemotherapy as well as the degree of drug resistance. Yet despite the importance of mitochondria and mitophagy in chemotherapy resistance, little is known about the precise mechanisms involved. As a consequence, identifying potential therapeutic targets by analyzing the signal pathways that govern mitophagy has become a vital research goal. In this paper, we review recent advances in mitochondrial research, mitophagy control mechanisms, and their implications for our understanding of chemotherapy resistance.
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Chen D, Jia G, Zhang Y, Mao H, Zhao L, Li W, Chen Y, Ni Y. Sox2 overexpression alleviates noise-induced hearing loss by inhibiting inflammation-related hair cell apoptosis. J Neuroinflammation 2022; 19:59. [PMID: 35227273 PMCID: PMC8883703 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-022-02414-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2021] [Accepted: 02/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Background
The transcription factor Sox2 plays important roles in the developmental processes of multiple organs and tissues. However, whether Sox2 can protect mature or terminally differentiated cells against injury is still unknown.
Methods
We investigated the roles of Sox2 in cochlear hair cells, which are terminally differentiated cells, using conditional transgenic mice and several hearing loss models.
Results
Sox2 overexpression dramatically mitigated the degree of cochlear hair cell loss when exposed to ototoxic drugs. Noise-induced apoptosis of cochlear hair cells and hearing loss were also significantly alleviated by Sox2 overexpression. Notably, noise-induced upregulation of pro-inflammatory factors such as TNF-α and IL6 was inhibited by Sox2 overexpression. Then we used lipopolysaccharide to clarify the effect of Sox2 on cochlear inflammation, and Sox2 overexpression significantly inhibited lipopolysaccharide-induced upregulation of pro-inflammatory factors and alleviated inflammation-related cochlear hair cell death.
Conclusions
These results demonstrate a novel protective role of Sox2 in mature and terminally differentiated cochlear hair cells by inhibiting inflammation.
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Shin J, Nile A, Saini RK, Oh JW. Astaxanthin Sensitizes Low SOD2-Expressing GBM Cell Lines to TRAIL Treatment via Pathway Involving Mitochondrial Membrane Depolarization. Antioxidants (Basel) 2022; 11:antiox11020375. [PMID: 35204257 PMCID: PMC8869337 DOI: 10.3390/antiox11020375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2021] [Revised: 02/09/2022] [Accepted: 02/11/2022] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Carotenoids have been suggested to have either anti- or pro-oxidative effects in several cancer cells, and those effects can trigger an unbalanced reactive oxygen species (ROS) production resulting in an apoptotic response. Our study aimed to evaluate the effect of the well-known carotenoid 3, 3′-dihydroxy-β, β’-carotene-4, 4-dione (astaxanthin, AXT) on glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) cells, especially as a pretreatment of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL), that was previously shown to increase ROS and to induce apoptosis in cancer cells. We found that AXT by itself did not trigger apoptosis in four investigated GBM cell lines upon a 24 h treatment at various concentrations from 2.5 to 50 µM. However, in U251-MG and T98-MG GBM cells, pretreatment of 2.5 to 10 µM AXT sensitized cells to TRAIL treatment in a statistically significant manner (p < 0.05) while it did not affect CRT-MG and U87-MG GBM cells. We further compared AXT-sensitive U251-MG and -insensitive CRT-MG response to AXT and showed that 5 µM AXT treatment had a beneficial effect on both cell lines, as it enhanced mitochondrial potential and TRAIL treatment had the opposite effect, as it decreased mitochondrial potential. Interestingly, in U251-MG, 5 µM AXT pretreatment to TRAIL-treated cells mitochondrial potential further decreased compared to TRAIL alone cells. In addition, while 25 and 50 ng/mL TRAIL treatment increased ROS for both cell lines, pretreatment of 5 µM AXT induced a significant ROS decrease in CRT-MG (p < 0.05) while less effective in U251-MG. We found that in U251-MG, superoxide dismutase (SOD) 2 expression and enzymatic activity were lower compared to CRT-MG and that overexpression of SOD2 in U251-MG abolished AXT sensitization to TRAIL treatment. Taken together, these results suggest that while AXT acts as an ROS scavenger in GBM cell lines, it also has some role in decreasing mitochondrial potential together with TRAIL in a pathway that can be inhibited by SOD2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juhyun Shin
- Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Biotechnology, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Korea; (J.S.); (A.N.)
| | - Arti Nile
- Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Biotechnology, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Korea; (J.S.); (A.N.)
| | | | - Jae-Wook Oh
- Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Biotechnology, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Korea; (J.S.); (A.N.)
- Correspondence:
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7
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Xiong NX, Ou J, Li SY, Zhao JH, Huang JF, Li KX, Luo SW, Liu SJ, Wen M, Wu C, Wang S, Luo KK, Hu FZ, Liu QF. A novel ferritin L (FerL) in hybrid crucian carp could participate in host defense against Aeromonas hydrophila infection and diminish inflammatory signals. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2022; 120:620-632. [PMID: 34968709 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2021.12.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2021] [Revised: 11/12/2021] [Accepted: 12/23/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
FerL, a multifunctional iron-storage polypeptide, not only exhibited a regulatory role in iron metabolism, but also participated in the regulation of fish immunity. In this study, ORF sequence of WR-FerL was 522 bp, encoding 173 amino acid residues. Tissue-specific analysis revealed that the highest expression of WR-FerL was detected in spleen. A. hydrophila challenge and LPS stimulation could sharply enhance WR-FerL mRNA expression in tissues and fish cells, respectively. Purified WR-FerL fusion peptide exhibited in vitro binding activity to A. hydrophila and endotoxin, limited bacterial dissemination to tissues as well as attenuated A. hydrophila-induced production of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Moreover, WR-FerL overexpression could abrogate NF-κB and TNFα promoter activity in fish cells. These results indicated that WR-FerL could play an important role in host defense against A. hydrophila infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ning-Xia Xiong
- State Key Laboratory of Developmental Biology of Freshwater Fish, College of Life Science, Hunan Normal University, Changsha, 410081, PR China
| | - Jie Ou
- State Key Laboratory of Developmental Biology of Freshwater Fish, College of Life Science, Hunan Normal University, Changsha, 410081, PR China
| | - Shi-Yun Li
- State Key Laboratory of Developmental Biology of Freshwater Fish, College of Life Science, Hunan Normal University, Changsha, 410081, PR China
| | - Jia-Hui Zhao
- Foreign Studies College, Hunan Normal University, Changsha, 410081, PR China
| | - Jin-Fang Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Developmental Biology of Freshwater Fish, College of Life Science, Hunan Normal University, Changsha, 410081, PR China
| | - Ke-Xin Li
- State Key Laboratory of Developmental Biology of Freshwater Fish, College of Life Science, Hunan Normal University, Changsha, 410081, PR China
| | - Sheng-Wei Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Developmental Biology of Freshwater Fish, College of Life Science, Hunan Normal University, Changsha, 410081, PR China.
| | - Shao-Jun Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Developmental Biology of Freshwater Fish, College of Life Science, Hunan Normal University, Changsha, 410081, PR China.
| | - Ming Wen
- State Key Laboratory of Developmental Biology of Freshwater Fish, College of Life Science, Hunan Normal University, Changsha, 410081, PR China
| | - Chang Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Developmental Biology of Freshwater Fish, College of Life Science, Hunan Normal University, Changsha, 410081, PR China
| | - Shi Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Developmental Biology of Freshwater Fish, College of Life Science, Hunan Normal University, Changsha, 410081, PR China
| | - Kai-Kun Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Developmental Biology of Freshwater Fish, College of Life Science, Hunan Normal University, Changsha, 410081, PR China
| | - Fang-Zhou Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Developmental Biology of Freshwater Fish, College of Life Science, Hunan Normal University, Changsha, 410081, PR China
| | - Qing-Feng Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Developmental Biology of Freshwater Fish, College of Life Science, Hunan Normal University, Changsha, 410081, PR China
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Xie Y, Chen D, Jiang K, Song L, Qian N, Du Y, Yang Y, Wang F, Chen T. Hair shaft miniaturization causes stem cell depletion through mechanosensory signals mediated by a Piezo1-calcium-TNF-α axis. Cell Stem Cell 2021; 29:70-85.e6. [PMID: 34624205 DOI: 10.1016/j.stem.2021.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2021] [Revised: 07/19/2021] [Accepted: 09/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
In aging, androgenic alopecia, and genetic hypotrichosis disorders, hair shaft miniaturization is often associated with hair follicle stem cell (HFSC) loss. However, the mechanism causing this stem cell depletion in vivo remains elusive. Here we show that hair shaft loss or a reduction in diameter shrinks the physical niche size, which results in mechanical compression of HFSCs and their apoptotic loss. Mechanistically, cell compression activates the mechanosensitive channel Piezo1, which triggers calcium influx. This confers tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) sensitivity in a hair-cycle-dependent manner in otherwise resistant HFSCs and induces ectopic apoptosis. Persistent hair shaft miniaturization during aging and genetic hypotrichosis disorders causes long-term HFSC loss by inducing continuous ectopic apoptosis through Piezo1. Our results identify an unconventional role of the inert hair shaft structure as a functional niche component governing HFSC survival and reveal a mechanosensory axis that regulates physical-niche-atrophy-induced stem cell depletion in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuhua Xie
- China Agricultural University, Beijing, China; National Institute of Biological Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Daoming Chen
- National Institute of Biological Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Kaiju Jiang
- National Institute of Biological Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Lifang Song
- National Institute of Biological Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Nannan Qian
- National Institute of Biological Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yingxue Du
- National Institute of Biological Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yong Yang
- Institute of Dermatology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Nanjing, China
| | - Fengchao Wang
- National Institute of Biological Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Ting Chen
- National Institute of Biological Sciences, Beijing, China; Tsinghua Institute of Multidisciplinary Biomedical Research, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China.
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Razeghian E, Suksatan W, Sulaiman Rahman H, Bokov DO, Abdelbasset WK, Hassanzadeh A, Marofi F, Yazdanifar M, Jarahian M. Harnessing TRAIL-Induced Apoptosis Pathway for Cancer Immunotherapy and Associated Challenges. Front Immunol 2021; 12:699746. [PMID: 34489946 PMCID: PMC8417882 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.699746] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2021] [Accepted: 08/05/2021] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The immune cytokine tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) has attracted rapidly evolving attention as a cancer treatment modality because of its competence to selectively eliminate tumor cells without instigating toxicity in vivo. TRAIL has revealed encouraging promise in preclinical reports in animal models as a cancer treatment option; however, the foremost constraint of the TRAIL therapy is the advancement of TRAIL resistance through a myriad of mechanisms in tumor cells. Investigations have documented that improvement of the expression of anti-apoptotic proteins and survival or proliferation involved signaling pathways concurrently suppressing the expression of pro-apoptotic proteins along with down-regulation of expression of TRAILR1 and TRAILR2, also known as death receptor 4 and 5 (DR4/5) are reliable for tumor cells resistance to TRAIL. Therefore, it seems that the development of a therapeutic approach for overcoming TRAIL resistance is of paramount importance. Studies currently have shown that combined treatment with anti-tumor agents, ranging from synthetic agents to natural products, and TRAIL could result in induction of apoptosis in TRAIL-resistant cells. Also, human mesenchymal stem/stromal cells (MSCs) engineered to generate and deliver TRAIL can provide both targeted and continued delivery of this apoptosis-inducing cytokine. Similarly, nanoparticle (NPs)-based TRAIL delivery offers novel platforms to defeat barricades to TRAIL therapeutic delivery. In the current review, we will focus on underlying mechanisms contributed to inducing resistance to TRAIL in tumor cells, and also discuss recent findings concerning the therapeutic efficacy of combined treatment of TRAIL with other antitumor compounds, and also TRAIL-delivery using human MSCs and NPs to overcome tumor cells resistance to TRAIL.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ehsan Razeghian
- Human Genetics Division, Medical Biotechnology Department, National Institute of Genetics Engineering and Biotechnology (NIGEB), Tehran, Iran
| | - Wanich Suksatan
- Faculty of Nursing, HRH Princess Chulabhorn College of Medical Science, Chulabhorn Royal Academy, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Heshu Sulaiman Rahman
- Department of Physiology, College of Medicine, University of Suleimanyah, Suleimanyah, Iraq
- Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, Komar University of Science and Technology, Sulaimaniyah, Iraq
| | - Dmitry O. Bokov
- Institute of Pharmacy, Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Moscow, Russia
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry, Federal Research Center of Nutrition, Biotechnology and Food Safety, Moscow, Russia
| | - Walid Kamal Abdelbasset
- Department of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz University, Al Kharj, Saudi Arabia
- Department of Physical Therapy, Kasr Al-Aini Hospital, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt
| | - Ali Hassanzadeh
- Department of Applied Cell Sciences, School of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Faroogh Marofi
- Immunology Research Center (IRC), Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Mahboubeh Yazdanifar
- Stem Cell Transplantation and Regenerative Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Palo Alto, CA, United States
| | - Mostafa Jarahian
- Toxicology and Chemotherapy Unit (G401), German Cancer Research Center, Heidelberg, Germany
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Desterke C, Bennaceur-Griscelli A, Turhan AG. EGR1 dysregulation defines an inflammatory and leukemic program in cell trajectory of human-aged hematopoietic stem cells (HSC). Stem Cell Res Ther 2021; 12:419. [PMID: 34294125 PMCID: PMC8296523 DOI: 10.1186/s13287-021-02498-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2021] [Accepted: 07/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Background During aging, hematopoietic stem cells (HSC) lose progressively both their self-renewal and differentiation potential. The precise molecular mechanisms of this phenomenon are not well established. To uncover the molecular events underlying this event, we have performed a bioinformatics analysis of 650 single-cell transcriptomes. Methods Single-cell transcriptome analyses of expression heterogeneity, cell cycle, and cell trajectory in human cell compartment enriched in hematopoietic stem cell compartment were investigated in the bone marrow according to the age of the donors. Identification of aging-related nodules was identified by weighted correlation network analysis in this primitive compartment. Results The analysis of single-cell transcriptomes allowed to uncover a major upregulation of EGR1 in human-aged lineage−CD34+CD38− cells which present cell cycle dysregulation with reduction of G2/M phase according to less expression of CCND2 during S phase. EGR1 upregulation in aging hematopoietic stem cells was found to be independent of cell cycle phases and gender. EGR1 expression trajectory in aged HSC highlighted a signature enriched in hematopoietic and immune disorders with the best induction of AP-1 complex and quiescence regulators such as EGR1, BTG2, JUNB, and NR41A. Sonic Hedgehog-related TMEM107 transmembrane molecule followed also EGR1 cell trajectory. EGR1-dependent gene weighted network analysis in human HSC-associated IER2 target protein-specific regulators of PP2A activity, IL1B, TNFSF10 ligands, and CD69, SELP membrane molecules in old HSC module with immune and leukemogenic signature. In contrast, for young HSC which were found with different cell cycle phase progression, its specific module highlighted upregulation of HIF1A hypoxic factor, PDE4B immune marker, DRAK2 (STK17B) T cell apoptosis regulator, and MYADM myeloid-associated marker. Conclusion EGR1 was found to be connected to the aging of human HSC and highlighted a specific cell trajectory contributing to the dysregulation of an inflammatory and leukemia-related transcriptional program in aged human HSCs. EGR1 and its program were found to be connected to the aging of human HSC with dissociation of quiescence property and cell cycle phase progression in this primitive hematopoietic compartment. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13287-021-02498-0.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Annelise Bennaceur-Griscelli
- INSERM UA9, University Paris-Saclay, 94800, Villejuif, France.,ESTeam Paris Sud, INGESTEM National IPSC Infrastructure, University Paris-Saclay, 94800, Villejuif, France.,Division of Hematology, APHP-Paris Saclay University Hospitals, Le Kremlin Bicêtre 94275, 94800, Villejuif, France.,Faculty of Medicine, University Paris Saclay, 94275, Le Kremlin Bicêtre, France
| | - Ali G Turhan
- INSERM UA9, University Paris-Saclay, 94800, Villejuif, France. .,ESTeam Paris Sud, INGESTEM National IPSC Infrastructure, University Paris-Saclay, 94800, Villejuif, France. .,Division of Hematology, APHP-Paris Saclay University Hospitals, Le Kremlin Bicêtre 94275, 94800, Villejuif, France. .,Faculty of Medicine, University Paris Saclay, 94275, Le Kremlin Bicêtre, France.
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Shallie PD, Naicker T. Differential upregulations of SMAC and LAMIN B levels in the buffy coat of HIV associated preeclamptic women. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2021; 35:5080-5086. [PMID: 33478301 DOI: 10.1080/14767058.2021.1875210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To assess HIV positivity as an apoptotic confounding variable in pregnancies complicated by preeclampsia. METHODS AND MATERIALS Using a Bio-plex Multiplex Immunoassay, Smac and Lamin B concentrations (ng/ml) were analyzed in a buffy coat collected from 128 pregnant women attending a large regional hospital in Durban, South Africa. Study groups consisted of Normotensive and Preeclamptic pregnant women stratified according to their HIV status. All HIV positive groups received highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART). RESULTS Our findings showed significant (p < .05) upregulation in the levels of both SMAC and LAMIN B in the HIV positive patients and a concomitant downregulation of the same apoptotic makers were observed in preeclampsia regardless of HIV status. CONCLUSIONS These results could be associated with the fact that apoptosis promotes deregulation of mitochondrial dynamics, contributing to the associated severe obstetric events observed in pregnancies among HIV-infected women on HAART.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philemon D Shallie
- Optics and Imaging Centre, Nelson R. Mandela School of Medicine, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa.,Anatomy, College of Medicine, Olabisi Onabanjo University, Sagamu, Nigeria
| | - Thajasvarie Naicker
- Optics and Imaging Centre, College of Health Sciences, Doris Duke Medical Research Institute, Nelson R. Mandela School of Medicine, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
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12
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Ortega OO, Lopez CF. Interactive Multiresolution Visualization of Cellular Network Processes. iScience 2019; 23:100748. [PMID: 31884165 PMCID: PMC6941861 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2019.100748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2019] [Revised: 11/08/2019] [Accepted: 11/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Visualization plays a central role in the analysis of biochemical network models to identify patterns that arise from reaction dynamics and perform model exploratory analysis. To facilitate these analyses, we developed PyViPR, a visualization tool that generates static and dynamic representations of biochemical network processes within a Python-based environment. PyViPR embeds network visualizations within Jupyter notebooks, thus enabling integration with modeling, simulation, and analysis workflows. To present the capabilities of PyViPR, we explore execution mechanisms of extrinsic apoptosis in HeLa cells. We show that community-detection algorithms identify groups of molecular species that capture key biological functions and ease exploration of the apoptosis network. We then show how different kinetic parameter sets that fit the experimental data equally well exhibit significantly different signal-execution dynamics as the system progresses toward mitochondrial outer-membrane permeabilization. Therefore, PyViPR aids the conceptual understanding of dynamic network processes and accelerates hypothesis generation for further testing and validation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oscar O Ortega
- Chemical and Physical Biology Program, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Carlos F Lopez
- Chemical and Physical Biology Program, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA; Biochemistry Department, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA.
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13
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Peng R, Zhu J, Deng S, Shi H, Xu S, Wu H, Zou F. Targeting BAX ubiquitin‐binding sites reveals that BAX activation is essential for its ubiquitin‐dependent degradation. J Cell Biochem 2019; 121:2802-2810. [DOI: 10.1002/jcb.29505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2019] [Accepted: 10/10/2019] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Rui Peng
- College of Life SciencesSichuan University Chengdu Sichuan China
| | - Jialin Zhu
- College of Life SciencesSichuan University Chengdu Sichuan China
| | - Shujin Deng
- College of Life SciencesSichuan University Chengdu Sichuan China
| | - Hui Shi
- College of Life SciencesSichuan University Chengdu Sichuan China
| | - Shutao Xu
- College of Life SciencesSichuan University Chengdu Sichuan China
| | - Hongjuan Wu
- College of Life SciencesSichuan University Chengdu Sichuan China
| | - Fangdong Zou
- College of Life SciencesSichuan University Chengdu Sichuan China
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14
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Goklany S, Lu P, Godeshala S, Hall A, Garrett-Mayer E, Voelkel-Johnson C, Rege K. Delivery of TRAIL-expressing plasmid DNA to cancer cells in vitro and in vivo using aminoglycoside-derived polymers. J Mater Chem B 2019; 7:7014-7025. [PMID: 31633707 DOI: 10.1039/c9tb01286a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) is a death ligand that can preferentially induce apoptosis in cancer cells over normal cells. The transmembrane form of TRAIL has been shown to elicit much stronger activity than its soluble counterpart but delivery is a potential challenge. Here, we investigated the potential of aminoglycoside-derived polymers to enhance delivery of a plasmid (pEF-TRAIL) that expresses the transmembrane form of TRAIL in order to determine the effect on cell death in vitro and tumor growth in vivo. Transgene delivery efficacy and toxicity of aminoglycoside-derived polymers was first evaluated using a GFP-expressing plasmid (pEF-GFP) at different plasmid amounts and plasmid : polymer ratios in UMUC3 bladder cancer and HeLa cervical cancer cells. Delivery of the TRAIL plasmid using aminoglycoside-derived polymers resulted in up to 60% cell death in UMUC3 and HeLa cells; TRAIL protein expression was confirmed using Western blots. TRAIL plasmid delivery resulted in a decrease in cellular procaspase-8 and an increase in TRAIL receptor DR5 levels, suggesting a role for the death receptor and caspase cascade in TRAIL-mediated apoptosis. The TRAIL plasmid did not cause cell death in normal human or mouse fibroblasts. The in vivo delivery of the TRAIL plasmid using a paromomycin-derived polymer resulted in significant reduction in tumor burden and increased survival in tumor-bearing live mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheba Goklany
- Chemical Engineering, Arizona State University, 501 E. Tyler Mall, ECG 303, Tempe, AZ 85287-6106, USA.
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15
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The combination of TPL2 knockdown and TNFα causes synthetic lethality via caspase-8 activation in human carcinoma cell lines. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2019; 116:14039-14048. [PMID: 31239343 PMCID: PMC6628646 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1901465116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Most normal and tumor cells are protected from tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα)-induced apoptosis. Here, we identify the MAP3 kinase tumor progression locus-2 (TPL2) as a player contributing to the protection of a subset of tumor cell lines. The combination of TPL2 knockdown and TNFα gives rise to a synthetic lethality phenotype via receptor-interacting serine/threonine-protein kinase 1 (RIPK1)-dependent and -independent mechanisms. Whereas wild-type TPL2 rescues the phenotype, its kinase-dead mutant does not. Comparison of the molecular events initiated by small interfering RNA for TPL2 (siTPL2) ± TNFα in treatment-sensitive and -resistant lines revealed that the activation of caspase-8, downstream of miR-21-5p and cFLIP, is the dominant TPL2-dependent event. More important, comparison of the gene expression profiles of all of the tested cell lines results in the clustering of sensitive and resistant lines into distinct groups, providing proof of principle for the feasibility of generating a predictive tool for treatment sensitivity.
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16
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Willms A, Schittek H, Rahn S, Sosna J, Mert U, Adam D, Trauzold A. Impact of p53 status on TRAIL-mediated apoptotic and non-apoptotic signaling in cancer cells. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0214847. [PMID: 30947287 PMCID: PMC6448923 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0214847] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2018] [Accepted: 03/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Due to their ability to preferentially induce cell death in tumor cells, while sparing healthy cells, TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) and agonistic anti-TRAIL-R1 or anti-TRAIL-R2-specific antibodies are under clinical investigations for cancer-treatment. However, TRAIL-Rs may also induce signaling pathways, which result in malignant progression. TRAIL receptors are transcriptionally upregulated via wild-type p53 following radio- or chemotherapy. Nevertheless, the impact of p53 status on the expression and signaling of TRAIL-Rs is not fully understood. Therefore, we analyzed side by side apoptotic and non-apoptotic signaling induced by TRAIL or the agonistic TRAIL-R-specific antibodies Mapatumumab (anti-TRAIL-R1) and Lexatumumab (anti-TRAIL-R2) in the two isogenic colon carcinoma cell lines HCT116 p53+/+ and p53-/-. We found that HCT116 p53+/+ cells were significantly more sensitive to TRAIL-R-triggering than p53-/- cells. Similarly, A549 lung cancer cells expressing wild-type p53 were more sensitive to TRAIL-R-mediated cell death than their derivatives with knockdown of p53. Our data demonstrate that the contribution of p53 in regulating TRAIL-R-induced apoptosis does not correlate to the levels of TRAIL-Rs at the plasma membrane, but rather to p53-mediated upregulation of Bax, favouring the mitochondrial amplification loop. Consistently, stronger caspase-9 and caspase-3 activation as well as PARP-cleavage was observed following TRAIL-R-triggering in HCT116 p53+/+ compared to HCT116 p53-/- cells. Interestingly, HCT116 p53+/+ cells showed also a more potent activation of non-canonical TRAIL-R-induced signal transduction pathways like JNK, p38 and ERK1/ERK2 than p53-/- cells. Likewise, these cells induced IL-8 expression in response to TRAIL, Mapatumumab or Lexatumumab significantly stronger than p53-/- cells. We obtained similar results in A549 cells with or without p53-knockdown and in the two isogenic colon cancer cell lines RKO p53+/+ and p53-/-. In both cellular systems, we could clearly demonstrate the potentiating effects of p53 on TRAIL-R-mediated IL-8 induction. In conclusion, we found that wild-type p53 increases TRAIL-R-mediated apoptosis but simultaneously augments non-apoptotic signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Willms
- Division of Molecular Oncology, Institute for Experimental Cancer Research, CCC-North, University of Kiel, Kiel, Germany
| | - Hella Schittek
- Division of Molecular Oncology, Institute for Experimental Cancer Research, CCC-North, University of Kiel, Kiel, Germany
| | - Sascha Rahn
- Division of Molecular Oncology, Institute for Experimental Cancer Research, CCC-North, University of Kiel, Kiel, Germany
| | - Justyna Sosna
- Institute of Immunology, University of Kiel, Kiel, Germany
| | - Ufuk Mert
- Division of Molecular Oncology, Institute for Experimental Cancer Research, CCC-North, University of Kiel, Kiel, Germany
| | - Dieter Adam
- Institute of Immunology, University of Kiel, Kiel, Germany
| | - Anna Trauzold
- Division of Molecular Oncology, Institute for Experimental Cancer Research, CCC-North, University of Kiel, Kiel, Germany
- Clinic for General Surgery, Visceral, Thoracic, Transplantation and Pediatric Surgery, University Hospital Schleswig-Holstein, Kiel, Germany
- * E-mail:
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17
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Kretz AL, Trauzold A, Hillenbrand A, Knippschild U, Henne-Bruns D, von Karstedt S, Lemke J. TRAILblazing Strategies for Cancer Treatment. Cancers (Basel) 2019; 11:cancers11040456. [PMID: 30935038 PMCID: PMC6521007 DOI: 10.3390/cancers11040456] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2019] [Revised: 03/25/2019] [Accepted: 03/26/2019] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
In the late 1990s, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL), a member of the TNF-family, started receiving much attention for its potential in cancer therapy, due to its capacity to induce apoptosis selectively in tumour cells in vivo. TRAIL binds to its membrane-bound death receptors TRAIL-R1 (DR4) and TRAIL-R2 (DR5) inducing the formation of a death-inducing signalling complex (DISC) thereby activating the apoptotic cascade. The ability of TRAIL to also induce apoptosis independently of p53 makes TRAIL a promising anticancer agent, especially in p53-mutated tumour entities. Thus, several so-called TRAIL receptor agonists (TRAs) were developed. Unfortunately, clinical testing of these TRAs did not reveal any significant anticancer activity, presumably due to inherent or acquired TRAIL resistance of most primary tumour cells. Since the potential power of TRAIL-based therapies still lies in TRAIL's explicit cancer cell-selectivity, a desirable approach going forward for TRAIL-based cancer therapy is the identification of substances that sensitise tumour cells for TRAIL-induced apoptosis while sparing normal cells. Numerous of such TRAIL-sensitising strategies have been identified within the last decades. However, many of these approaches have not been verified in animal models, and therefore potential toxicity of these approaches has not been taken into consideration. Here, we critically summarise and discuss the status quo of TRAIL signalling in cancer cells and strategies to force tumour cells into undergoing apoptosis triggered by TRAIL as a cancer therapeutic approach. Moreover, we provide an overview and outlook on innovative and promising future TRAIL-based therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna-Laura Kretz
- Department of General and Visceral Surgery, Ulm University Hospital, Albert-Einstein-Allee 23, 89081 Ulm, Germany.
| | - Anna Trauzold
- Institute for Experimental Cancer Research, University of Kiel, 24105 Kiel, Germany.
- Clinic for General Surgery, Visceral, Thoracic, Transplantation and Pediatric Surgery, University Hospital Schleswig-Holstein, 24105 Kiel, Germany.
| | - Andreas Hillenbrand
- Department of General and Visceral Surgery, Ulm University Hospital, Albert-Einstein-Allee 23, 89081 Ulm, Germany.
| | - Uwe Knippschild
- Department of General and Visceral Surgery, Ulm University Hospital, Albert-Einstein-Allee 23, 89081 Ulm, Germany.
| | - Doris Henne-Bruns
- Department of General and Visceral Surgery, Ulm University Hospital, Albert-Einstein-Allee 23, 89081 Ulm, Germany.
| | - Silvia von Karstedt
- Department of Translational Genomics, University Hospital Cologne, Weyertal 115b, 50931 Cologne, Germany.
- Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Response in Aging-Associated Diseases (CECAD), University of Cologne, Joseph-Stelzmann Straße 26, 50931 Cologne, Germany.
| | - Johannes Lemke
- Department of General and Visceral Surgery, Ulm University Hospital, Albert-Einstein-Allee 23, 89081 Ulm, Germany.
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18
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Liu N, Wu Z, Chen A, Chai D, Li L, Zhang L, Zheng J. ISG12a and its interaction partner NR4A1 are involved in TRAIL-induced apoptosis in hepatoma cells. J Cell Mol Med 2019; 23:3520-3529. [PMID: 30821058 PMCID: PMC6484314 DOI: 10.1111/jcmm.14251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2018] [Revised: 12/24/2018] [Accepted: 02/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) can induce apoptosis in cancer cells while sparing normal cells, thereby leading to the development of TRAIL receptor agonists for cancer treatment. However, these agonist-based therapeutics exhibit little clinical benefits due to the lack of biomarkers to predict whether patients are responsive to the treatment, as well as determine the resistance of cancer cells to TRAIL-based agonists. Our previous study has demonstrated that ISG12a enhances TRAIL-induced apoptosis and might serve as a biomarker to predict the TRAIL response. The downstream mechanism by which ISG12a augments TRAIL-induced apoptosis remains to be elucidated. In this study, we found that ISG12a was localized in the mitochondria and nucleus and augmented TRAIL-induced apoptosis through intrinsic apoptotic pathway. In addition, ISG12a interacted with NR4A1 and promoted its nuclear-to-cytoplasm translocation. Upon translocate to cytoplasm, NR4A1 targeted mitochondria and induced Bcl2 conformational change, thereby exposing its BH3 domain. Moreover, TRAIL treatment can induce NR4A1 expression through the activation of NF-κB in TRAIL-resistant Huh7 hepatoma cells. Knockdown of NR4A1 could overcome TRAIL resistance. However, in TRAIL-sensitive LH86 liver cancer cells, TRAIL activated the Jun N-terminal kinases signalling pathway. Overall, these results showed that both ISG12a and its interaction partner NR4A1 are involved in TRAIL-mediated apoptosis in hepatoma cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nianli Liu
- Cancer Institute, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China.,Department of Radiation Oncology, Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Zhiyuan Wu
- Cancer Institute, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China.,Department of Radiation Oncology, Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Aoxing Chen
- Cancer Institute, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China.,Department of Radiation Oncology, Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Dafei Chai
- Cancer Institute, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Liantao Li
- Cancer Institute, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China.,Department of Radiation Oncology, Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Longzhen Zhang
- Cancer Institute, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China.,Department of Radiation Oncology, Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Junnian Zheng
- Cancer Institute, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China.,Center of Clinical Oncology, Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China.,Jiangsu Center for the Collaboration and Innovation of Cancer Biotherapy, Cancer Institute, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China
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19
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Serrano-Saenz S, Palacios C, Delgado-Bellido D, López-Jiménez L, Garcia-Diaz A, Soto-Serrano Y, Casal JI, Bartolomé RA, Fernández-Luna JL, López-Rivas A, Oliver FJ. PIM kinases mediate resistance of glioblastoma cells to TRAIL by a p62/SQSTM1-dependent mechanism. Cell Death Dis 2019; 10:51. [PMID: 30718520 PMCID: PMC6362213 DOI: 10.1038/s41419-018-1293-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2018] [Revised: 12/07/2018] [Accepted: 12/18/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common and aggressive brain tumor and is associated with poor prognosis. GBM cells are frequently resistant to tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) and finding new combinatorial therapies to sensitize glioma cells to TRAIL remains an important challenge. PIM kinases are serine/threonine kinases that promote cell survival and proliferation and are highly expressed in different tumors. In this work, we studied the role of PIM kinases as regulators of TRAIL sensitivity in GBM cells. Remarkably, PIM inhibition or knockdown facilitated activation by TRAIL of a TRAIL-R2/DR5-mediated and mitochondria-operated apoptotic pathway in TRAIL-resistant GBM cells. The sensitizing effect of PIM knockdown on TRAIL-induced apoptosis was mediated by enhanced caspase-8 recruitment to and activation at the death-inducing signaling complex (DISC). Interestingly, TRAIL-induced internalization of TRAIL-R2/DR5 was significantly reduced in PIM knockdown cells. Phospho-proteome profiling revealed a decreased phosphorylation of p62/SQSTM1 after PIM knockdown. Our results also showed an interaction between p62/SQSTM1 and the DISC that was reverted after PIM knockdown. In line with this, p62/SQSTM1 ablation increased TRAIL-R2/DR5 levels and facilitated TRAIL-induced caspase-8 activation, revealing an inhibitory role of p62/SQSTM1 in TRAIL-mediated apoptosis in GBM. Conversely, upregulation of TRAIL-R2/DR5 upon PIM inhibition and apoptosis induced by the combination of PIM inhibitor and TRAIL were abrogated by a constitutively phosphorylated p62/SQSTM1S332E mutant. Globally, our data represent the first evidence that PIM kinases regulate TRAIL-induced apoptosis in GBM and identify a specific role of p62/SQSTM1Ser332 phosphorylation in the regulation of the extrinsic apoptosis pathway activated by TRAIL.
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Affiliation(s)
- Santiago Serrano-Saenz
- Instituto de Parasitología y Biomedicina López-Neyra, CSIC, CIBERONC, Parque Tecnológico Ciencias de la Salud, Avenida del Conocimiento, s/n, 18100, Armilla, Granada, Spain.,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red-Oncología (CIBERONC), Carlos III Health Institute, Madrid, Spain
| | - Carmen Palacios
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red-Oncología (CIBERONC), Carlos III Health Institute, Madrid, Spain.,Centro Andaluz de Biología Molecular y Medicina Regenerativa-CABIMER, CSIC-Universidad de Sevilla-Universidad Pablo de Olavide, CIBERONC, Avda Américo Vespucio 24, 41092, Sevilla, Spain
| | - Daniel Delgado-Bellido
- Instituto de Parasitología y Biomedicina López-Neyra, CSIC, CIBERONC, Parque Tecnológico Ciencias de la Salud, Avenida del Conocimiento, s/n, 18100, Armilla, Granada, Spain
| | - Laura López-Jiménez
- Instituto de Parasitología y Biomedicina López-Neyra, CSIC, CIBERONC, Parque Tecnológico Ciencias de la Salud, Avenida del Conocimiento, s/n, 18100, Armilla, Granada, Spain
| | - Angel Garcia-Diaz
- Instituto de Parasitología y Biomedicina López-Neyra, CSIC, CIBERONC, Parque Tecnológico Ciencias de la Salud, Avenida del Conocimiento, s/n, 18100, Armilla, Granada, Spain
| | - Yolanda Soto-Serrano
- Instituto de Parasitología y Biomedicina López-Neyra, CSIC, CIBERONC, Parque Tecnológico Ciencias de la Salud, Avenida del Conocimiento, s/n, 18100, Armilla, Granada, Spain
| | - J Ignacio Casal
- Department of Molecular Biomedicine, Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas, CSIC, Ramiro de Maeztu 9, 28039, Madrid, Spain
| | - Rubén A Bartolomé
- Department of Molecular Biomedicine, Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas, CSIC, Ramiro de Maeztu 9, 28039, Madrid, Spain
| | - José Luis Fernández-Luna
- HUMV-Hospital Universitario Marqués de Valdecilla Avenida Valdecilla, 25, 39008, Santander, Cantabria, Spain
| | - Abelardo López-Rivas
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red-Oncología (CIBERONC), Carlos III Health Institute, Madrid, Spain. .,Centro Andaluz de Biología Molecular y Medicina Regenerativa-CABIMER, CSIC-Universidad de Sevilla-Universidad Pablo de Olavide, CIBERONC, Avda Américo Vespucio 24, 41092, Sevilla, Spain.
| | - F Javier Oliver
- Instituto de Parasitología y Biomedicina López-Neyra, CSIC, CIBERONC, Parque Tecnológico Ciencias de la Salud, Avenida del Conocimiento, s/n, 18100, Armilla, Granada, Spain. .,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red-Oncología (CIBERONC), Carlos III Health Institute, Madrid, Spain.
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20
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Hepatocellular carcinomas are promoted by tocopheryl acetate but eliminated by tocopheryl succinate. JOURNAL OF NUTRITION & INTERMEDIARY METABOLISM 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jnim.2018.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
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21
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Danish L, Imig D, Allgöwer F, Scheurich P, Pollak N. Bcl-2-mediated control of TRAIL-induced apoptotic response in the non-small lung cancer cell line NCI-H460 is effective at late caspase processing steps. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0198203. [PMID: 29927992 PMCID: PMC6013189 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0198203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2017] [Accepted: 05/15/2018] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Dysregulation of the mitochondrial signaling pathway of apoptosis induction represents a major hurdle in tumor therapy. The objective of the presented work was to investigate the role of the intrinsic (mitochondrial) apoptotic pathway in the non-small lung cancer cell line NCI-H460 upon induction of apoptosis using the highly bioactive TRAIL derivative Db-scTRAIL. NCI-H460 cells were TRAIL sensitive but an only about 3 fold overexpression of Bcl-2 was sufficient to induce a highly TRAIL resistant phenotype, confirming that the mitochondrial pathway is crucial for TRAIL-induced apoptosis induction. TRAIL resistance was paralleled by a strong inhibition of caspase-8, -9 and -3 activities and blocked their full processing. Notably, especially the final cleavage steps of the initiator caspase-8 and the executioner caspase-3 were effectively blocked by Bcl-2 overexpression. Caspase-9 knockdown failed to protect NCI-H460 cells from TRAIL-induced cell death, suggesting a minor role of this initiator caspase in this apoptotic pathway. Rather, knockdown of the XIAP antagonist Smac resulted in enhanced caspase-3 degradation after stimulation of cells with TRAIL. Of note, downregulation of XIAP had only limited effects on TRAIL sensitivity of wild-type NCI-H460 cells, but resensitized Bcl-2 overexpressing cells for TRAIL-induced apoptosis. In particular, XIAP knockdown in combination with TRAIL allowed the final cleavage step of caspase-3 to generate the catalytically active p17 fragment, whose production was otherwise blocked in Bcl-2 overexpressing cells. Together, our data strongly suggest that XIAP-mediated inhibition of final caspase-3 processing is the last and major hurdle in TRAIL-induced apoptosis in NCI-H460 cells, which can be overcome by Smac in a Bcl-2 level dependent manner. Quantitative investigation of the XIAP/Smac interplay using a mathematical model approach corroborates our experimental data strengthening the suggested roles of XIAP and Smac as critical determinants for TRAIL sensitivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lubna Danish
- Institute of Cell Biology and Immunology, University of Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Dirke Imig
- Institute of Systems Theory and Automatic Control, University of Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Frank Allgöwer
- Institute of Systems Theory and Automatic Control, University of Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Peter Scheurich
- Institute of Cell Biology and Immunology, University of Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Nadine Pollak
- Institute of Cell Biology and Immunology, University of Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany
- Institute of Systems Theory and Automatic Control, University of Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany
- * E-mail:
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22
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Campbell KJ, Tait SWG. Targeting BCL-2 regulated apoptosis in cancer. Open Biol 2018; 8:rsob.180002. [PMID: 29769323 PMCID: PMC5990650 DOI: 10.1098/rsob.180002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 325] [Impact Index Per Article: 54.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2018] [Accepted: 04/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The ability of a cell to undergo mitochondrial apoptosis is governed by pro- and anti-apoptotic members of the BCL-2 protein family. The equilibrium of pro- versus anti-apoptotic BCL-2 proteins ensures appropriate regulation of programmed cell death during development and maintains organismal health. When unbalanced, the BCL-2 family can act as a barrier to apoptosis and facilitate tumour development and resistance to cancer therapy. Here we discuss the BCL-2 family, their deregulation in cancer and recent pharmaceutical developments to target specific members of this family as cancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirsteen J Campbell
- Cancer Research UK Beatson Institute, University of Glasgow, Garscube Estate, Switchback Road, Glasgow, G61 1BD, UK
- Institute of Cancer Sciences, University of Glasgow, Garscube Estate, Switchback Road, Glasgow, G61 1BD, UK
| | - Stephen W G Tait
- Cancer Research UK Beatson Institute, University of Glasgow, Garscube Estate, Switchback Road, Glasgow, G61 1BD, UK
- Institute of Cancer Sciences, University of Glasgow, Garscube Estate, Switchback Road, Glasgow, G61 1BD, UK
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Radi ZA, Stewart ZS, O'Neil SP. Accidental and Programmed Cell Death in Investigative and Toxicologic Pathology. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018; 76:e51. [PMID: 30040239 DOI: 10.1002/cptx.51] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Cellular development and homeostasis are regulated via programmed cell death (PCD; apoptosis), which is a genetically regulated cellular process. Accidental cell death (ACD; necrosis) can be triggered by chemical, physical, or mechanical stress. Necrosis is the presence of dead tissues or cells in a living organism regardless of the initiating process and can be observed in infectious and non-infectious diseases and toxicities. This article describes tissue-based immunohistotechnical protocols used for assessing PCD and necrosis in formalin-fixed tissues obtained from preclinical species used in investigative and toxicologic pathology. Two commonly employed protocols for the identification of PCD and necrosis are described in this article: immunohistochemistry (IHC) for cleaved caspase 3, and terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase (TdT)-mediated dUTP nick-end labeling (TUNEL). TUNEL has been used to detect DNA fragmentation by labeling the terminal ends of nucleic acids in necrotic and apoptotic cells. © 2018 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zaher A Radi
- Drug Safety R&D, Pfizer Inc., Cambridge, Massachusetts
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Predicting the cell death responsiveness and sensitization of glioma cells to TRAIL and temozolomide. Oncotarget 2018; 7:61295-61311. [PMID: 27494880 PMCID: PMC5308652 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.10973] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2015] [Accepted: 07/18/2016] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Genotoxic chemotherapy with temozolomide (TMZ) is a mainstay of treatment for glioblastoma (GBM); however, at best, TMZ provides only modest survival benefit to a subset of patients. Recent insight into the heterogeneous nature of GBM suggests a more personalized approach to treatment may be necessary to overcome cancer drug resistance and improve patient care. These include novel therapies that can be used both alone and with TMZ to selectively reactivate apoptosis within malignant cells. For this approach to work, reliable molecular signatures that can accurately predict treatment responsiveness need to be identified first. Here, we describe the first proof-of-principle study that merges quantitative protein-based analysis of apoptosis signaling networks with data- and knowledge-driven mathematical systems modeling to predict treatment responsiveness of GBM cell lines to various apoptosis-inducing stimuli. These include monotherapies with TMZ and TRAIL, which activate the intrinsic and extrinsic apoptosis pathways, respectively, as well as combination therapies of TMZ+TRAIL. We also successfully employed this approach to predict whether individual GBM cell lines could be sensitized to TMZ or TRAIL via the selective targeting of Bcl-2/Bcl-xL proteins with ABT-737. Our findings suggest that systems biology-based approaches could assist in personalizing treatment decisions in GBM to optimize cell death induction.
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Lv T, Zhang W, Han X. Zerumbone suppresses the potential of growth and metastasis in hepatoma HepG2 cells via the MAPK signaling pathway. Oncol Lett 2018; 15:7603-7610. [PMID: 29849796 PMCID: PMC5962844 DOI: 10.3892/ol.2018.8335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2016] [Accepted: 01/11/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Zerumbone is an active component of Zingiber zerumbet (L.) Smith and can perform a diverse range of antitumor activities. However, the underlying molecular mechanisms of zerumbone action have not yet been elucidated. The aim of the present study was to investigate the antitumor effects, and the associated molecular mechanisms, of zerumbone in hepatoma HepG2 cells. Treatment with zerumbone markedly induced apoptosis in hepatoma HepG2 cells and suppressed their invasion and metastasis in a dose-dependent manner. Further investigation revealed that treatment with zerumbone led to the dose-dependent induction of apoptosis and cell cycle arrest at G2/M phase in cancer cells. Zerumbone treatment led to the increased expression of p27, cytochrome c, caspase-3 and-9, and Bcl-2-associated X expression, but the decreased expression of cyclin-dependent kinase 1, cyclin B1, B-cell lymphoma-2, focal adhesion kinase, Ras homolog gene family, member A, Rho-associated protein kinase-1, and matrix metalloproteinase-2 and-9 in HepG2 cells. In addition, the phosphorylation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase and extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2, but not C-Jun N-terminal kinase 1/2, was regulated in a dose-dependent manner in response to zerumbone treatment. The results of the current study indicate that zerumbone could be used as potential anticancer agent in for the treatment of hepatoma in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tao Lv
- Department of General Surgery, Yantai Yeda Hospital, Yantai, Shandong 264006, P.R. China
| | - Wenjing Zhang
- Department of General Surgery, Yantai Yeda Hospital, Yantai, Shandong 264006, P.R. China
| | - Xiaoli Han
- Department of General Surgery, Yantai Yeda Hospital, Yantai, Shandong 264006, P.R. China
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Should We Keep Walking along the Trail for Pancreatic Cancer Treatment? Revisiting TNF-Related Apoptosis-Inducing Ligand for Anticancer Therapy. Cancers (Basel) 2018; 10:cancers10030077. [PMID: 29562636 PMCID: PMC5876652 DOI: 10.3390/cancers10030077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2018] [Revised: 03/13/2018] [Accepted: 03/14/2018] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite recent advances in oncology, diagnosis, and therapy, treatment of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is still exceedingly challenging. PDAC remains the fourth leading cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide. Poor prognosis is due to the aggressive growth behavior with early invasion and distant metastasis, chemoresistance, and a current lack of adequate screening methods for early detection. Consequently, novel therapeutic approaches are urgently needed. Many hopes for cancer treatment have been placed in the death ligand tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) since it was reported to induce apoptosis selectively in tumor cells in vitro and in vivo. TRAIL triggers apoptosis through binding of the trans-membrane death receptors TRAIL receptor 1 (TRAIL-R1) also death receptor 4 (DR4) and TRAIL receptor 2 (TRAIL-R2) also death receptor 5 (DR5) thereby inducing the formation of the death-inducing signaling complex (DISC) and activation of the apoptotic cascade. Unlike chemotherapeutics, TRAIL was shown to be able to induce apoptosis in a p53-independent manner, making TRAIL a promising anticancer approach for p53-mutated tumors. These cancer-selective traits of TRAIL led to the development of TRAIL-R agonists, categorized into either recombinant variants of TRAIL or agonistic antibodies against TRAIL-R1 or TRAIL-R2. However, clinical trials making use of these agonists in various tumor entities including pancreatic cancer were disappointing so far. This is thought to be caused by TRAIL resistance of numerous primary tumor cells, an insufficient agonistic activity of the drug candidates tested, and a lack of suitable biomarkers for patient stratification. Nevertheless, recently gained knowledge on the biology of the TRAIL-TRAIL-R system might now provide the chance to overcome intrinsic or acquired resistance against TRAIL and TRAIL-R agonists. In this review, we summarize the status quo of clinical studies involving TRAIL-R agonists for the treatment of pancreatic cancer and critically discuss the suitability of utilizing the TRAIL-TRAIL-R system for successful treatment.
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Xiao K, Zhao W, Zhou L, Chang DC. Alpha 5/6 helix domains together with N-terminus determine the apoptotic potency of the Bcl-2 family proteins. Apoptosis 2018; 21:1214-1226. [PMID: 27553060 DOI: 10.1007/s10495-016-1283-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
A critical process in apoptosis is the permeabilization of the mitochondrial outer membrane (MOM). This process is known to be regulated by the multi-domain Bcl-2 family proteins. For example, the pro-apoptotic proteins Bax and Bak are responsible for forming pores at MOM. The anti-apoptotic proteins (including Bcl-2, Mcl-1 and Bcl-xL), on the other hand, can inhibit this pore-forming process. Interestingly, although these two subgroups of proteins perform opposite apoptotic functions, their structures are very similar. This raises two highly interesting questions: (1) Why do these structurally similar proteins play opposite roles in apoptosis? (2) What are the roles of different functional domains of a Bcl-2 family protein in determining its apoptotic property? In this study, we generated a series of deletion mutants and substitution chimera, and used a combination of molecular biology, bio-informatics and living cell imaging techniques to answer these questions. Our major findings are: (1) All of the Bcl-2 family proteins appear to possess an intrinsic pro-apoptotic property. (2) The N-termini of these proteins play an active role in suppressing their pro-apoptotic function. (3) The apoptotic potency is positively correlated with membrane affinity of the alpha 5/6 helix domains. (4) Charge distribution flanking the alpha 5/6 helices is also important for the apoptotic potency. These findings explain why different members of Bcl-2 family proteins with similar domain composition can function oppositely in the apoptotic process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kang Xiao
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Marine Bioresource and Eco-environmental Science, Guangdong Engineering Research; Center for Marine Algal Biotechnology, College of Life Science and Oceanography; Key Laboratory of Optoeletronic Devices and Systems of Ministry of Education and Guangdong Province, College of Optoeletronic Engineering, Shenzhen University, 518060, Shenzhen, China
| | - Wenrui Zhao
- Division of Life Science, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China
| | - Liying Zhou
- Division of Life Science, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China
| | - Donald Choy Chang
- Division of Life Science, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China.
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28
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Design, synthesis and biological evaluation of 1, 4-dihydro indeno[1,2- c ] pyrazole linked oxindole analogues as potential anticancer agents targeting tubulin and inducing p53 dependent apoptosis. Eur J Med Chem 2018; 144:104-115. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2017.12.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2017] [Revised: 12/01/2017] [Accepted: 12/03/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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Paul A, Krelin Y, Arif T, Jeger R, Shoshan-Barmatz V. A New Role for the Mitochondrial Pro-apoptotic Protein SMAC/Diablo in Phospholipid Synthesis Associated with Tumorigenesis. Mol Ther 2017; 26:680-694. [PMID: 29396267 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymthe.2017.12.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2017] [Revised: 12/20/2017] [Accepted: 12/20/2017] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The mitochondrial pro-apoptotic protein SMAC/Diablo participates in apoptosis by negatively regulating IAPs and activating caspases, thus encouraging apoptosis. Unexpectedly, we found that SMAC/Diablo is overexpressed in cancer. This paradox was addressed here by silencing SMAC/Diablo expression using specific siRNA (si-hSMAC). In cancer cell lines and subcutaneous lung cancer xenografts in mice, such silencing reduced cell and tumor growth. Immunohistochemistry and electron microscopy of the si-hSMAC-treated residual tumor demonstrated morphological changes, including cell differentiation and reorganization into glandular/alveoli-like structures and elimination of lamellar bodies, surfactant-producing organs. Next-generation sequencing of non-targeted or si-hSMAC-treated tumors revealed altered expression of genes associated with the cellular membrane and extracellular matrix, of genes found in the ER and Golgi lumen and in exosomal networks, of genes involved in lipid metabolism, and of lipid, metabolite, and ion transporters. SMAC/Diablo silencing decreased the levels of phospholipids, including phosphatidylcholine. These findings suggest that SMAC/Diablo possesses additional non-apoptotic functions related to regulating lipid synthesis essential for cancer growth and development and that this may explain SMAC/Diablo overexpression in cancer. The new lipid synthesis-related function of the pro-apoptotic protein SMAC/Diablo in cancer cells makes SMAC/Diablo a promising therapeutic target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Avijit Paul
- Department of Life Sciences and the National Institute for Biotechnology in the Negev, Ben-Gurion University, Beer-Sheva 84105, Israel
| | - Yakov Krelin
- Department of Life Sciences and the National Institute for Biotechnology in the Negev, Ben-Gurion University, Beer-Sheva 84105, Israel
| | - Tasleem Arif
- Department of Life Sciences and the National Institute for Biotechnology in the Negev, Ben-Gurion University, Beer-Sheva 84105, Israel
| | - Rina Jeger
- Department of Life Sciences and the National Institute for Biotechnology in the Negev, Ben-Gurion University, Beer-Sheva 84105, Israel
| | - Varda Shoshan-Barmatz
- Department of Life Sciences and the National Institute for Biotechnology in the Negev, Ben-Gurion University, Beer-Sheva 84105, Israel.
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Abstract
Metastasis is one of the most characteristic yet problematic behaviors of cancer cells. Stage IV breast cancer accounts for a large portion of breast cancer-related morbidity and mortality. Despite early detection and improvement in survival owing to advancements in biomedical research and overall improvement of the health system, 6-10% of patients present with stage IV disease in the developed world, with a higher incidence noted elsewhere. Despite advances in biomedical research into cancer, up to 70-80% of patients with stage IV breast cancer die of cancer in 5 years, a disproportionally higher mortality compared with non-metastatic breast cancer. In this article, we review the incidence, survival, heterogeneity, current practice, and challenges in stage IV breast cancer, and we finish by noting new research initiatives to improve poor survival and suggesting future directions. By doing so, we hope to set the basis of future directions for both treating physicians and translational researchers to relieve the suffering of patients with stage IV breast cancer and improve the survival of patients with this dismal disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bora Lim
- Breast Medical Oncology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, 1515 Holcombe Blvd, Houston, TX, 77030, USA
| | - Gabriel N Hortobagyi
- Breast Medical Oncology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, 1515 Holcombe Blvd, Houston, TX, 77030, USA.
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31
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Jana S, Hsieh AC, Gupta R. Reciprocal amplification of caspase-3 activity by nuclear export of a putative human RNA-modifying protein, PUS10 during TRAIL-induced apoptosis. Cell Death Dis 2017; 8:e3093. [PMID: 28981101 PMCID: PMC5682645 DOI: 10.1038/cddis.2017.476] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2017] [Revised: 08/18/2017] [Accepted: 08/24/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Pus10 is a pseudouridine synthase present in Archaea and Eukarya, but not in Bacteria and yeast. It has been suggested that the human PUS10 (DOBI) gene is needed during TRAIL-induced apoptosis. We analyzed the role of PUS10 in TRAIL-induced apoptosis by immunofluorescence, immunoblotting and several indicators of apoptosis. We examined several TRAIL-sensitive cell lines and we also examined some resistant cell lines after treatment with cycloheximide. PUS10 is mainly present in the nucleus. Early during apoptosis, PUS10 translocates to mitochondria via CRM1-mediated export with the concurrent release of cytochrome c and SMAC. Caspase-3 is required for PUS10 translocation, which reciprocally amplifies the activity of caspase-3 through the intrinsic/mitochondrial pathway. This suggests that in addition to cytoplasmic factors, nuclear factors also have a direct role in the major apoptosis pathways. However, p53 is not involved in TRAIL-induced PUS10 movement. The caspase-3-mediated movement of PUS10 and the release of mitochondrial contents enhancing caspase-3 activity creates a feedback amplification loop for caspase-3 action. Therefore, any defect in the movement or interactions of PUS10 would reduce the TRAIL sensitivity of tumor cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sujata Jana
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, IL 62901-4413, USA
| | - Andrew C Hsieh
- Division of Human Biology, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA 98109, USA.,School of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Ramesh Gupta
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, IL 62901-4413, USA
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32
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ONC201 activates ER stress to inhibit the growth of triple-negative breast cancer cells. Oncotarget 2017; 8:21626-21638. [PMID: 28423492 PMCID: PMC5400611 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.15451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2016] [Accepted: 01/24/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
ONC201 was previously identified as a first-in-class antitumor agent and small-molecule inducer of the TRAIL (tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand) gene that induces apoptosis in cancer cells. ONC201 has a safety profile and is currently in phase II clinical trials for the treatment of various malignancies. In the current study, we examine the effect of ONC201 on triple-negative breast cancer cells (TNBC), a subtype of breast cancer that is sensitive to TRAIL. We find that ONC201 inhibits the growth of TNBC cells including TNBC cells that have developed acquired TRAIL resistance. However, TNBC cells that have developed acquired ONC201 resistance are cross-resistant to TRAIL. Mechanistically, ONC201 triggers an integrated stress response (ISR) involving the activation of the transcription factor ATF4. Knockdown of ATF4 impairs ONC201-induced apoptosis of TNBC cells. Importantly, the activation of ATF4 is compromised in ONC201-resistant TNBC cells. Thus, our results indicate that ONC201 induces an ISR to cause TNBC cell death and suggest that TNBC patients may benefit from ONC201-based therapies.
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Selective replication of oncolytic virus M1 results in a bystander killing effect that is potentiated by Smac mimetics. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2017; 114:6812-6817. [PMID: 28607091 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1701002114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Oncolytic virotherapy is a treatment modality that uses native or genetically modified viruses that selectively replicate in and kill tumor cells. Viruses represent a type of pathogen-associated molecular pattern and thereby induce the up-regulation of dozens of cytokines via activating the host innate immune system. Second mitochondria-derived activator of caspases (Smac) mimetic compounds (SMCs), which antagonize the function of inhibitor of apoptosis proteins (IAPs) and induce apoptosis, sensitize tumor cells to multiple cytokines. Therefore, we sought to determine whether SMCs sensitize tumor cells to cytokines induced by the oncolytic M1 virus, thus enhancing a bystander killing effect. Here, we report that SMCs potentiate the oncolytic effect of M1 in vitro, in vivo, and ex vivo. This strengthened oncolytic efficacy resulted from the enhanced bystander killing effect caused by the M1 virus via cytokine induction. Through a microarray analysis and subsequent validation using recombinant cytokines, we identified IL-8, IL-1A, and TRAIL as the key cytokines in the bystander killing effect. Furthermore, SMCs increased the replication of M1, and the accumulation of virus protein induced irreversible endoplasmic reticulum stress- and c-Jun N-terminal kinase-mediated apoptosis. Nevertheless, the combined treatment with M1 and SMCs had little effect on normal and human primary cells. Because SMCs selectively and significantly enhance the bystander killing effect and the replication of oncolytic virus M1 specifically in cancer cells, this combined treatment may represent a promising therapeutic strategy.
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34
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Sivalingam KS, Paramasivan P, Weng CF, Viswanadha VP. Neferine Potentiates the Antitumor Effect of Cisplatin in Human Lung Adenocarcinoma Cells Via a Mitochondria-Mediated Apoptosis Pathway. J Cell Biochem 2017; 118:2865-2876. [DOI: 10.1002/jcb.25937] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2017] [Accepted: 02/16/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kalai Selvi Sivalingam
- Translational Research Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology, School of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering; Bharathiar University; Coimbatore Tamil Nadu India
| | - Poornima Paramasivan
- Translational Research Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology, School of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering; Bharathiar University; Coimbatore Tamil Nadu India
| | - Ching Feng Weng
- Laboratory of Molecular Physiology, Department of Life Sciences, Institute of Biotechnology; National Dong Hwa University; Hualien 974 Taiwan
| | - Vijaya padma Viswanadha
- Translational Research Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology, School of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering; Bharathiar University; Coimbatore Tamil Nadu India
- Basic Medical Science; China Medical University; Taichung Taiwan
- Departments of Biotechnology; Asia University; Taichung Taiwan
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Strekalova E, Malin D, Rajanala H, Cryns VL. Metformin sensitizes triple-negative breast cancer to proapoptotic TRAIL receptor agonists by suppressing XIAP expression. Breast Cancer Res Treat 2017; 163:435-447. [PMID: 28324269 DOI: 10.1007/s10549-017-4201-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2017] [Accepted: 03/13/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Despite robust antitumor activity in diverse preclinical models, TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) receptor agonists have not demonstrated efficacy in clinical trials, underscoring the need to identify agents that enhance their activity. We postulated that the metabolic stress induced by the diabetes drug metformin would sensitize breast cancer cells to TRAIL receptor agonists. METHODS Human triple (estrogen receptor, progesterone receptor, and HER2)-negative breast cancer (TNBC) cell lines were treated with TRAIL receptor agonists (monoclonal antibodies or TRAIL peptide), metformin, or the combination. The effects on cell survival, caspase activation, and expression of TRAIL receptors and the antiapoptotic protein XIAP were determined. In addition, XIAP was silenced by RNAi in TNBC cells and the effects on sensitivity to TRAIL were determined. The antitumor effects of metformin, TRAIL, or the combination were evaluated in an orthotopic model of metastatic TNBC. RESULTS Metformin sensitized diverse TNBC cells to TRAIL receptor agonists. Metformin selectively enhanced the sensitivity of transformed breast epithelial cells to TRAIL receptor agonist-induced caspase activation and apoptosis with little effect on untransformed breast epithelial cells. These effects of metformin were accompanied by robust reductions in the protein levels of XIAP, a negative regulator of TRAIL-induced apoptosis. Silencing XIAP in TNBC cells mimicked the TRAIL-sensitizing effects of metformin. Metformin also enhanced the antitumor effects of TRAIL in a metastatic murine TNBC model. CONCLUSIONS Our findings indicate that metformin enhances the activity of TRAIL receptor agonists, thereby supporting the rationale for additional translational studies combining these agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Strekalova
- Department of Medicine, University of Wisconsin Carbone Cancer Center, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, MFCB 4144, 1685 Highland Avenue, Madison, WI, 53705, USA
| | - Dmitry Malin
- Department of Medicine, University of Wisconsin Carbone Cancer Center, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, MFCB 4144, 1685 Highland Avenue, Madison, WI, 53705, USA
| | - Harisha Rajanala
- Department of Medicine, University of Wisconsin Carbone Cancer Center, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, MFCB 4144, 1685 Highland Avenue, Madison, WI, 53705, USA
| | - Vincent L Cryns
- Department of Medicine, University of Wisconsin Carbone Cancer Center, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, MFCB 4144, 1685 Highland Avenue, Madison, WI, 53705, USA.
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36
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Naoum GE, Buchsbaum DJ, Tawadros F, Farooqi A, Arafat WO. Journey of TRAIL from Bench to Bedside and its Potential Role in Immuno-Oncology. Oncol Rev 2017; 11:332. [PMID: 28584572 PMCID: PMC5432952 DOI: 10.4081/oncol.2017.332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2016] [Revised: 02/17/2017] [Accepted: 02/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Induction of apoptosis in cancer cells has increasingly been the focus of many therapeutic approaches in oncology field. Since its identification as a TNF family member, TRAIL (TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand) paved a new path in apoptosis inducing cancer therapies. Its selective ability to activate extrinsic and intrinsic cell death pathways in cancer cells only, independently from p53 mutations responsible for conventional therapeutics resistance, spotted TRAIL as a potent cancer apoptotic agent. Many recombinant preparations of TRAIL and death receptor targeting monoclonal antibodies have been developed and being tested pre-clinically and clinically both as a single agent and in combinations. Of note, the monoclonal antibodies were not the only type of antibodies developed to target TRAIL receptors. Recent technology has brought forth several single chain variable domains (scFv) designs fused recombinantly to TRAIL as well. Also, it is becoming progressively more understandable that field of nanotechnology has revolutionized cancer diagnosis and therapy. The recent breakthroughs in materials science and protein engineering have helped considerably in strategically loading drugs into nanoparticles or conjugating drugs to their surface. In this review we aim to comprehensively highlight the molecular knowledge of TRAIL in the context of its pathway, receptors and resistance factors. We also aim to review the clinical trials that have been done using TRAIL based therapies and to review various scFv designs, the arsenal of nano-carriers and molecules available to selectively target tumor cells with TRAIL.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Waleed O. Arafat
- Alexandria Comprehensive Cancer Center, Alexandria, Egypt
- Univeristy of Alabama, Birmingham, AL, USA
- University of Alexandria, Faculty of Medicine, Egypt
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37
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Teng Y, Dong YC, Liu Z, Zou Y, Xie H, Zhao Y, Su J, Cao F, Jin H, Ren H. DNA methylation-mediated caspase-8 downregulation is associated with anti-apoptotic activity and human malignant glioma grade. Int J Mol Med 2017; 39:725-733. [DOI: 10.3892/ijmm.2017.2881] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2016] [Accepted: 01/27/2017] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
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38
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Epigallocatechin-3-gallate Sensitizes Human 786-O Renal Cell Carcinoma Cells to TRAIL-Induced Apoptosis. Cell Biochem Biophys 2016; 72:157-64. [PMID: 25539708 DOI: 10.1007/s12013-014-0428-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) is a promising anticancer agent. Epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) is a polyphenolic constituent of green tea. In this study, potentiating effect of EGCG on TRAIL-induced apoptosis human renal carcinoma cell line 786-O which is relatively resistant to TRAIL was examined, and the possible mechanism was investigated. Here, we show that co-treatment with EGCG and TRAIL induced significantly more profound apoptosis in 786-O cells. Treatment of 786-O cells with EGCG and TRAIL downregulated c-FLIP, Mcl-1, and Bcl-2 proteins in a caspase-dependent pathway. Moreover, we found that pretreatment with NAC markedly inhibited the expression levels of c-FLIP, Mcl-1, and Bcl-2 downregulated by the combinatory treatment, suggesting that the regulating effect of EGCG on these above apoptosis-relevant molecules was partially mediated by generation of ROS. Taken together, the present study demonstrates that EGCG sensitizes human 786-O renal cell carcinoma cells to TRAIL-induced apoptosis by downregulation of c-FLIP, Mcl-1, and Bcl-2.
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39
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Chen M, Wu J, Zhang XX, Wang Q, Yan SH, Wang HD, Liu SL, Zou X. Anticancer activity of sesquiterpenoids extracted from Solanum lyratum via the induction of mitochondria-mediated apoptosis. Oncol Lett 2016; 13:370-376. [PMID: 28123569 DOI: 10.3892/ol.2016.5404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2015] [Accepted: 10/11/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Sesquiterpenoids are a major type of compound found in Solanum lyratum (S. lyratum). The present study aimed to investigate whether sesquiterpenoids from S. lyratum demonstrated cytotoxicity against the MCF-7, HCT-8, A-549, SGC-7901 and BEL-7402 cell lines, and the mechanism of solajiangxin H and lyratol D, which exhibited high cytotoxicity against SGC-7901 cells (half maximal inhibitory concentration, IC50=4.8 and 5.9 µg/ml), was associated with mitochondria-mediated apoptosis. The results of the Cell Counting Kit-8 assay indicated that 15 sesquiterpenoids had cytotoxicity against the aforementioned cultured cells. The results of DAPI staining and western blot analysis, used to study the anticancer mechanisms of solajiangxin H and lyratol D in SGC-7901 cells, suggested that solajiangxin H and lyratol D induced the apoptosis of SGC-7901 cells significantly (P<0.01), downregulated the expression of the antiapoptotic proteins B-cell lymphoma (Bcl)-2 and survivin, and upregulated the expression of the proapoptotic proteins Bcl-2-like protein 4, second mitochondria-derived activator of caspase, cleaved (c)-caspase-3 and c-caspase-9. The present study therefore demonstrated that 15 sesquiterpenoids from S. lyratum exhibited anticancer activity in MCF-7, HCT-8, A-549, SGC-7901 and BEL-7402 cells, and that the anticancer mechanisms of solajiangxin H and lyratol D may be associated with mitochondria-mediated apoptosis. Additionally, the present study provides evidence in support of the hypothesis that S. lyratum may be a promising candidate for the development of novel cancer therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Chen
- General Internal Medicine Department, Jiangsu Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, The Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210029, P.R. China
| | - Jian Wu
- Central Laboratory, Jiangsu Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, The Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210029, P.R. China
| | - Xing-Xing Zhang
- Digestive Department, Jiangsu Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, The Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210029, P.R. China
| | - Qiong Wang
- Basic Pharmacology Laboratory, Jiangsu Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, The Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210029, P.R. China
| | - Shi-Hai Yan
- Basic Pharmacology Laboratory, Jiangsu Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, The Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210029, P.R. China
| | - Hai-Dan Wang
- Basic Pharmacology Laboratory, Jiangsu Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, The Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210029, P.R. China
| | - Sheng-Lin Liu
- Oncology Department, Jiangsu Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, The Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210029, P.R. China
| | - Xi Zou
- Oncology Department, Jiangsu Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, The Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210029, P.R. China
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The protective effect of regucalcin against radiation-induced damage in testicular cells. Life Sci 2016; 164:31-41. [PMID: 27620963 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2016.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2016] [Revised: 09/05/2016] [Accepted: 09/07/2016] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
AIMS Regucalcin (RGN), a protein broadly expressed in the male reproductive tract, has shown to have beneficial effects on spermatogenesis suppressing chemical-induced apoptosis. This study aimed to evaluate whether RGN overexpression ameliorates the spermatogenic phenotype after radiation treatment. MAIN METHODS Transgenic rats overexpressing RGN (Tg-RGN) and their wild-type (Wt) counterparts were exposed to a single dose of X-rays (6Gy), and at ten weeks after irradiation, the testicular status and the epididymal sperm parameters were evaluated. The expression of RGN and several cell cycle and apoptosis regulators, the enzymatic activity of caspase-3, and RGN immunostaining were also assessed. KEY FINDINGS Tg-RGN animals displayed higher gonadosomatic index, and augmented sperm viability and motility relatively to their Wt counterparts after irradiation, as well as higher frequency of normal sperm morphology and a diminished incidence of head-defects. The differences in reproductive parameters were underpinned by a lower rate of apoptosis, as evidenced by the reduced activity of caspase-3, lower levels of caspase-8, and increased Bcl-2/Bax ratio in the testis of Tg-RGN animals. Supporting the involvement of RGN in the anti-apoptotic response, an enhanced expression of RGN was observed in irradiated rats. SIGNIFICANCE Transgenic-overexpression of RGN protected against radiation-induced testicular damage, which strengthens the role of this protein protecting cells from the damage of external agents. These findings also indicated that the modulation of RGN testicular levels would be a mechanism for fertility preservation in men undergoing oncological treatment.
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Naoum GE, Tawadros F, Farooqi AA, Qureshi MZ, Tabassum S, Buchsbaum DJ, Arafat W. Role of nanotechnology and gene delivery systems in TRAIL-based therapies. Ecancermedicalscience 2016; 10:660. [PMID: 27594905 PMCID: PMC4990059 DOI: 10.3332/ecancer.2016.660] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Since its identification as a member of the tumour necrosis factor (TNF) family, TRAIL (TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand) has emerged as a new avenue in apoptosis-inducing cancer therapies. Its ability to circumvent the chemoresistance of conventional therapeutics and to interact with cancer stem cells (CSCs) self-renewal pathways, amplified its potential as a cancer apoptotic agent. Many recombinant preparations of this death ligand and monoclonal antibodies targeting its death receptors have been tested in monotherapy and combinational clinical trials. Gene therapy is a new approach for cancer treatment which implies viral or non-viral functional transgene induction of apoptosis in cancer cells or repair of the underlying genetic abnormality on a molecular level. The role of this approach in overcoming the traditional barriers of radiation and chemotherapeutics systemic toxicity, risk of recurrence, and metastasis made it a promising platform for cancer treatment. The recent first Food Drug Administration (FDA) approved oncolytic herpes virus for melanoma treatment brings forth the potency of the cancer gene therapy approach in the future. Many gene delivery systems have been studied for intratumoural TRAIL gene delivery alone or in combination with chemotherapeutic agents to produce synergistic cancer cytotoxicity. However, there still remain many obstacles to be conquered for this different gene delivery systems. Nanomedicine on the other hand offers a new frontier for clinical trials and biomedical research. The FDA approved nanodrugs motivates horizon exploration for other nanoscale designed particles’ implications in gene delivery. In this review we aim to highlight the molecular role of TRAIL in apoptosis and interaction with cancer stem cells (CSCs) self-renewal pathways. Finally, we also aim to discuss the different roles of gene delivery systems, mesenchymal cells, and nanotechnology designs in TRAIL gene delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Fady Tawadros
- East Tennessee State University, 1276 Gilbreath Dr, Johnson City, TN 37604, USA
| | | | | | - Sobia Tabassum
- Institute of Biomedical and Genetic Engineering (IBGE), Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Donald J Buchsbaum
- University of Alabama at Birmingham, 1720 2nd Ave S, Birmingham, AL 35233, USA
| | - Waleed Arafat
- University of Alabama at Birmingham, 1720 2nd Ave S, Birmingham, AL 35233, USA; University of Alexandria, El-Gaish Rd, Egypt, Alexandria, Egypt
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Zhang HF, Wang KH. Relationship between mutations of mitochondrial DNA control region and tumors. Shijie Huaren Xiaohua Zazhi 2016; 24:2676-2681. [DOI: 10.11569/wcjd.v24.i17.2676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The mitochondrion is the main place of cell respiration and participates in the process of cell apoptosis and proliferation, nucleic acid synthesis, and the production of free radicals. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is susceptible to the attack by oxygen free radicals and their products, and tends to develop somatic mutations, because of the lack of protection by histones and complete repair system. Somatic mutations in mtDNA will finally promote tumorigenesis. The control region of mtDNA is a region with a high mutation frequency. The association between control region mutations and tumorigenesis has attracted wide attention. Therefore, it is of great significance to elucidate the relationship between mtDNA control region mutations and tumorigenesis.
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LIM EUNGYEONG, KIM GUENTAE, LEE SEHEE, KIM SANGYONG, KIM YOUNGMIN. Apoptotic effects of extract from Cnidium monnieri (L.) Cusson by adenosine monosphosphate-activated protein kinase-independent pathway in HCT116 colon cancer cells. Mol Med Rep 2016; 13:4681-8. [DOI: 10.3892/mmr.2016.5115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2014] [Accepted: 12/15/2015] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
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Ouyang W, Zhang S, Yang B, Yang C, Zhang J, Zhou F, Xie C. β-catenin is regulated by USP9x and mediates resistance to TRAIL-induced apoptosis in breast cancer. Oncol Rep 2015; 35:717-24. [PMID: 26717875 DOI: 10.3892/or.2015.4463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2015] [Accepted: 09/04/2015] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
To investigate the regulatory mechanisms of decoy receptor expression in TRAIL-resistant breast cancer MCF-7 cells, cytotoxicity and apoptosis assays were applied to examine sensitivity to TRAIL in breast cancer cells. Immunofluorescence and immunoprecipitation were used to detect the co-localization and interaction of USP9x and β-catenin. Luciferase assay was used to examine activity of the DcR1/DcR2/OPG reporter. Overexpression/silencing of β-catenin was performed to confirm β-catenin mediated transcription of the decoy receptors. Additionally, silencing of USP9x was performed to prove that USP9X stabilizes β-catenin and mediates TRAIL-resistance. It was found that USP9x interacted with β-catenin and inhibited the degradation of β-catenin through the deubiquitination of β-catenin. Luciferase reporter assays showed induction of DcR1/DcR2/OPG reporter activity observed upon co-transfection of β-catenin and Tcf-4. The overexpression/silencing of β-catenin further confirmed the role of β-catenin in the regulation of transcription of the decoy receptors. Silencing of USP9x directly evidenced that USP9x affected the protein expression level of β-catenin, the transcription level of the decoy receptors, and reversed TRAIL-resistance of MCF-7 cells. In conclusion, USP9x interacted with and stabilized β-catenin through deubiquitination to mediate transcription of the decoy receptors in breast cancer cells. Our results offer new insights into the mechanisms of resistance to TRAIL, and USP9x could potentially be a therapeutic target for TRAIL-resistant breast cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen Ouyang
- Department of Radiation and Medical Oncology, Zhongnan Hospital, Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei 430071, P.R. China
| | - Shimin Zhang
- Department of Radiation and Medical Oncology, Zhongnan Hospital, Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei 430071, P.R. China
| | - Bo Yang
- Department of Radiation and Medical Oncology, Zhongnan Hospital, Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei 430071, P.R. China
| | - Chunxu Yang
- Department of Radiation and Medical Oncology, Zhongnan Hospital, Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei 430071, P.R. China
| | - Junhong Zhang
- Department of Radiation and Medical Oncology, Zhongnan Hospital, Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei 430071, P.R. China
| | - Fuxiang Zhou
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Tumor Biological Behaviors, Zhongnan Hospital, Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei 430071, P.R. China
| | - Conghua Xie
- Department of Radiation and Medical Oncology, Zhongnan Hospital, Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei 430071, P.R. China
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Yin PT, Shah S, Pasquale NJ, Garbuzenko OB, Minko T, Lee KB. Stem cell-based gene therapy activated using magnetic hyperthermia to enhance the treatment of cancer. Biomaterials 2015; 81:46-57. [PMID: 26720500 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2015.11.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2015] [Accepted: 11/10/2015] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Stem cell-based gene therapies, wherein stem cells are genetically engineered to express therapeutic molecules, have shown tremendous potential for cancer applications owing to their innate ability to home to tumors. However, traditional stem cell-based gene therapies are hampered by our current inability to control when the therapeutic genes are actually turned on, thereby resulting in detrimental side effects. Here, we report the novel application of magnetic core-shell nanoparticles for the dual purpose of delivering and activating a heat-inducible gene vector that encodes TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) in adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells (AD-MSCs). By combining the tumor tropism of the AD-MSCs with the spatiotemporal MCNP-based delivery and activation of TRAIL expression, this platform provides an attractive means with which to enhance our control over the activation of stem cell-based gene therapies. In particular, we found that these engineered AD-MSCs retained their innate ability to proliferate, differentiate, and, most importantly, home to tumors, making them ideal cellular carriers. Moreover, exposure of the engineered AD-MSCS to mild magnetic hyperthermia resulted in the selective expression of TRAIL from the engineered AD-MSCs and, as a result, induced significant ovarian cancer cell death in vitro and in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Perry T Yin
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA
| | - Shreyas Shah
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA
| | - Nicholas J Pasquale
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA
| | - Olga B Garbuzenko
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA
| | - Tamara Minko
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA; Rutgers Cancer Institute of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ, 08903, USA
| | - Ki-Bum Lee
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA; Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA.
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Liu Z, Ding Y, Ye N, Wild C, Chen H, Zhou J. Direct Activation of Bax Protein for Cancer Therapy. Med Res Rev 2015; 36:313-41. [PMID: 26395559 DOI: 10.1002/med.21379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 141] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2015] [Revised: 08/18/2015] [Accepted: 08/22/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Bax, a central cell death regulator, is an indispensable gateway to mitochondrial dysfunction and a major proapoptotic member of the B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2) family proteins that control apoptosis in normal and cancer cells. Dysfunction of apoptosis renders the cancer cell resistant to treatment as well as promotes tumorigenesis. Bax activation induces mitochondrial membrane permeabilization, thereby leading to the release of apoptotic factor cytochrome c and consequently cancer cell death. A number of drugs in clinical use are known to indirectly activate Bax. Intriguingly, recent efforts demonstrate that Bax can serve as a promising direct target for small-molecule drug discovery. Several direct Bax activators have been identified to hold promise for cancer therapy with the advantages of specificity and the potential of overcoming chemo- and radioresistance. Further investigation of this new class of drug candidates will be needed to advance them into the clinic as a novel means to treat cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiqing Liu
- Chemical Biology Program, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX, 77555
| | - Ye Ding
- Chemical Biology Program, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX, 77555
| | - Na Ye
- Chemical Biology Program, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX, 77555
| | - Christopher Wild
- Chemical Biology Program, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX, 77555
| | - Haiying Chen
- Chemical Biology Program, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX, 77555
| | - Jia Zhou
- Chemical Biology Program, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX, 77555
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Amarante-Mendes GP, Griffith TS. Therapeutic applications of TRAIL receptor agonists in cancer and beyond. Pharmacol Ther 2015; 155:117-31. [PMID: 26343199 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2015.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
TRAIL/Apo-2L is a member of the TNF superfamily first described as an apoptosis-inducing cytokine in 1995. Similar to TNF and Fas ligand, TRAIL induces apoptosis in caspase-dependent manner following TRAIL death receptor trimerization. Because tumor cells were shown to be particularly sensitive to this cytokine while normal cells/tissues proved to be resistant along with being able to synthesize and release TRAIL, it was rapidly appreciated that TRAIL likely served as one of our major physiologic weapons against cancer. In line with this, a number of research laboratories and pharmaceutical companies have attempted to exploit the ability of TRAIL to kill cancer cells by developing recombinant forms of TRAIL or TRAIL receptor agonists (e.g., receptor-specific mAb) for therapeutic purposes. In this review article we will describe the biochemical pathways used by TRAIL to induce different cell death programs. We will also summarize the clinical trials related to this pathway and discuss possible novel uses of TRAIL-related therapies. In recent years, the physiological importance of TRAIL has expanded beyond being a tumoricidal molecule to one critical for a number of clinical settings - ranging from infectious disease and autoimmunity to cardiovascular anomalies. We will also highlight some of these conditions where modulation of the TRAIL/TRAIL receptor system may be targeted in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gustavo P Amarante-Mendes
- Departamento de Imunologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, SP, Brazil; Instituto de Investigação em Imunologia, Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia, Brazil.
| | - Thomas S Griffith
- Department of Urology, Masonic Cancer Center, Center for Immunology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA; Minneapolis VA Health Care System, Minneapolis, MN 55417, USA.
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Yang G, Zhang W, Qin Q, Wang J, Zheng H, Xiong W, Yuan J. Mono(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate induces apoptosis in p53-silenced L02 cells via activation of both mitochondrial and death receptor pathways. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY 2015; 30:1178-1191. [PMID: 24706461 DOI: 10.1002/tox.21990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2013] [Revised: 03/21/2014] [Accepted: 03/23/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Mono(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (MEHP) is one of the main metabolites of di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate. The evidence shows that DEHP may exert its toxic effects primarily via MEHP, which is 10-fold more potent than its parent compound in toxicity in vitro. MEHP-induced apoptosis is mediated by either p53-dependent or -independent pathway. However, the detailed mechanism of its toxicity remains unclear. In this study, immortalized normal human liver cell line L02 was chosen, as an in vitro model of nonmalignant liver, to elucidate the role of p53 in MEHP-induced apoptosis. The cells were treated with MEHP (6.25, 12.50, 25.00, 50.00, and 100.00 μM) for 24 and 36 h, then small interfering RNA (siRNA) was used to specifically silence p53 gene of L02 cells. The results indicated that MEHP caused oxidative DNA damage and apoptosis in L02 cells were associated with the p53 signaling pathway. Further study found that MEHP (50.00 and 100.00 μM) induced apoptosis in p53-silenced L02 cells, along with the up-regulations of Fas and FasL proteins as well as increased the Bax/Bcl-2 ratio and Caspase 3, 8, and 9 activities. Additionally, both FasL inhibitor (AF-016) and Caspase inhibitor N-benzyloxycarbonyl-Val-Ala-Asp- fluoromethylketone (Z-VAD-FMK) could prevent the cell apoptosis induced by MEHP. The findings suggested that MEHP-induced apoptosis in L02 cells involving a Caspases-mediated mitochondrial signaling pathway and/or death receptor pathway. p53 was not absolutely necessary for MEHP-induced L02 cell apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guangtao Yang
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, Hubei, People's Republic of China
- Key Laboratory of Environment and Health, Ministry of Education & Ministry of Environmental Protection, and State Key Laboratory of Environmental Health (Incubating), School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, Hubei, People's Republic of China
| | - Wenjuan Zhang
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, Hubei, People's Republic of China
- Key Laboratory of Environment and Health, Ministry of Education & Ministry of Environmental Protection, and State Key Laboratory of Environmental Health (Incubating), School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, Hubei, People's Republic of China
| | - Qizhi Qin
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, Hubei, People's Republic of China
- Key Laboratory of Environment and Health, Ministry of Education & Ministry of Environmental Protection, and State Key Laboratory of Environmental Health (Incubating), School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, Hubei, People's Republic of China
| | - Jing Wang
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, Hubei, People's Republic of China
- Key Laboratory of Environment and Health, Ministry of Education & Ministry of Environmental Protection, and State Key Laboratory of Environmental Health (Incubating), School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, Hubei, People's Republic of China
| | - Hongyan Zheng
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, Hubei, People's Republic of China
- Key Laboratory of Environment and Health, Ministry of Education & Ministry of Environmental Protection, and State Key Laboratory of Environmental Health (Incubating), School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, Hubei, People's Republic of China
| | - Wei Xiong
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, Hubei, People's Republic of China
- Key Laboratory of Environment and Health, Ministry of Education & Ministry of Environmental Protection, and State Key Laboratory of Environmental Health (Incubating), School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, Hubei, People's Republic of China
| | - Jing Yuan
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, Hubei, People's Republic of China
- Key Laboratory of Environment and Health, Ministry of Education & Ministry of Environmental Protection, and State Key Laboratory of Environmental Health (Incubating), School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, Hubei, People's Republic of China
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Flusberg DA, Sorger PK. Surviving apoptosis: life-death signaling in single cells. Trends Cell Biol 2015; 25:446-58. [PMID: 25920803 PMCID: PMC4570028 DOI: 10.1016/j.tcb.2015.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2014] [Revised: 03/19/2015] [Accepted: 03/19/2015] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Tissue development and homeostasis are regulated by opposing pro-survival and pro-death signals. An interesting feature of the Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF) family of ligands is that they simultaneously activate opposing signals within a single cell via the same ligand-receptor complex. The magnitude of pro-death events such as caspase activation and pro-survival events such as Nuclear Factor (NF)-κB activation vary not only from one cell type to the next but also among individual cells of the same type due to intrinsic and extrinsic noise. The molecules involved in these pro-survival and/or pro-death pathways, and the different phenotypes that result from their activities, have been recently reviewed. Here we focus on the impact of cell-to-cell variability in the strength of these opposing signals on shaping cell fate decisions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deborah A Flusberg
- Laboratory of Systems Pharmacology, Department of Systems Biology, Harvard Medical School, 200 Longwood Avenue, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Peter K Sorger
- Laboratory of Systems Pharmacology, Department of Systems Biology, Harvard Medical School, 200 Longwood Avenue, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
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Overexpression of BCL2 and BAX following BFM induction therapy predicts ch-ALL patients' poor response to treatment and short-term relapse. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol 2015; 141:2023-36. [PMID: 25982455 DOI: 10.1007/s00432-015-1982-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2015] [Accepted: 04/27/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE The identification of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ch-ALL) patients who are at a higher risk of chemotherapy resistance and relapse is essential for successful treatment decisions, despite the application of novel therapies. The aim of the study is the evaluation of BCL2 and BAX expression for the prognosis of ch-ALL patients treated with Berlin-Frankfurt-Münster (BFM) backbone protocol. METHODS Bone marrow specimens were obtained at the time of diagnosis and on day 33 following BFM treatment induction from 82 ch-ALL patients, as well as from 63 healthy children. Following extraction, total RNA was reverse transcribed and BCL2 and BAX expression levels were determined by qPCR. RESULTS BCL2 expression and BCL2/BAX ratio were strongly upregulated in ch-ALL compared to healthy children and were correlated with favorable prognostic disease features. Increased levels of BCL2 and BAX expression were associated with disease remission, as ch-ALL patients with lower expression ran a significantly higher risk of M2-M3 response, positive MRD and poor survival outcome. Moreover, the upregulation of BCL2 and BAX following BFM treatment induction was shown to represent an independent predictor of patients' short-term relapse, which was further confirmed in ch-ALL patients with favorable prognostic markers. CONCLUSIONS In conclusion, BCL2 and BAX could be effectively used for an enhanced prediction of BFM-treated patients' outcome.
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