Hole localization in molecular crystals from hybrid density functional theory

How Much Electron Donation Is There In Transition Metal Complexes? A Computational Study

The "dative" covalent interactions between metals and ligands in coordination compounds, i.e., metal-to-ligand and ligand-to-metal donation, are manifestations of electron delocalization and subject to errors in approximate calculations. This work addresses the extent of dative bonding/donation in a series of closed-shell transition metal complexes. Several Kohn-Sham density functionals, representing different "rungs" of approximations, along with post-Hartree-Fock methods are assessed in comparison to CCSD(T). Two widely used nonhybrid and global hybrid density functionals (B3LYP, PBE0) tend to produce notably too strong donation. Global hybrids with elevated fractions of exact exchange (40 to 50%) and the range-separated exchange functional CAM-B3LYP tend to perform better for the description of the donation. The performance of a double-hybrid functional is found to be quite satisfactory, correcting errors seen in MP2 calculations. A fast approximate coupled-cluster model (DLPNO-CCSD) also gives a reasonable description of the donation, with a tendency to underestimate its extent.

Combining Local Range Separation and Local Hybrids: A Step in the Quest for Obtaining Good Energies and Eigenvalues from One Functional

Some of the most successful exchange-correlation approximations in density functional theory are "hybrids", i.e., they rely on combining semilocal density functionals with exact nonlocal Fock exchange. In recent years, two classes of hybrid functionals have emerged as particularly promising: range-separated hybrids on the one hand, and local hybrids on the other hand. These functionals offer the hope to overcome a long-standing "observable dilemma", i.e., the fact that density functionals typically yield either a good description of binding energies, as obtained, e.g., in global and local hybrids, or physically interpretable eigenvalues, as obtained, e.g., in optimally tuned range-separated hybrids. Obtaining both of these characteristics from one and the same functional with the same set of parameters has been a long-standing challenge. We here discuss combining the concepts of local range separation and local hybrids as part of a constraint-guided quest for functionals that overcome the observable dilemma.

Polaron absorption in aligned conjugated polymer films: breakdown of adiabatic treatments and going beyond the conventional mid-gap state model

This study provides the first experimental polarized intermolecular and intramolecular optical absorption components of field-induced polarons in regioregular poly(3-hexylthiophene-2,5-diyl), rr-P3HT, a polymer semiconductor. Highly aligned rr-P3HT thin films were prepared by a high temperature shear-alignment process that orients polymer backbones along the shearing direction. rr-P3HT in-plane molecular orientation was measured by electron diffraction, and out-of-plane orientation was measured through series of synchrotron X-ray scattering techniques. Then, with molecular orientation quantified, polarized charge modulation spectroscopy was used to probe mid-IR polaron absorption in the ℏω = 0.075 - 0.75 eV range and unambiguously assign intermolecular and intramolecular optical absorption components of hole polarons in rr-P3HT. This data represents the first experimental quantification of these polarized components and allowed long-standing theoretical predictions to be compared to experimental results. The experimental data is discrepant with predictions of polaron absorption based on an adiabatic framework that works under the Born-Oppenheimer approximation, but the data is entirely consistent with a more recent nonadiabatic treatment of absorption based on a modified Holstein Hamiltonian. This nonadiabatic treatment was used to show that both intermolecular and intramolecular polaron coherence break down at length scales significantly smaller than estimated structural coherence in either direction. This strongly suggests that polaron delocalization is fundamentally limited by energetic disorder in rr-P3HT.

koopmans: An Open-Source Package for Accurately and Efficiently Predicting Spectral Properties with Koopmans Functionals

Over the past decade we have developed Koopmans functionals, a computationally efficient approach for predicting spectral properties with an orbital-density-dependent functional framework. These functionals impose a generalized piecewise linearity condition to the entire electronic manifold, ensuring that orbital energies match the corresponding electron removal/addition energy differences (in contrast to semilocal DFT, where a mismatch between the two lies at the heart of the band gap problem and, more generally, the unreliability of Kohn-Sham orbital energies). This strategy has proven to be very powerful, yielding molecular orbital energies and solid-state band structures with comparable accuracy to many-body perturbation theory but at greatly reduced computational cost while preserving a functional formulation. This paper reviews the theory of Koopmans functionals, discusses the algorithms necessary for their implementation, and introduces koopmans, an open-source package that contains all of the code and workflows needed to perform Koopmans functional calculations and obtain reliable spectral properties of molecules and materials.

Detection and Correction of Delocalization Errors for Electron and Hole Polarons Using Density-Corrected DFT

Modeling polaron defects is an important aspect of computational materials science, but the description of unpaired spins in density functional theory (DFT) often suffers from delocalization error. To diagnose and correct the overdelocalization of spin defects, we report an implementation of density-corrected (DC-)DFT and its analytic energy gradient. In DC-DFT, an exchange-correlation functional is evaluated using a Hartree-Fock density, thus incorporating electron correlation while avoiding self-interaction error. Results for an electron polaron in models of titania and a hole polaron in Al-doped silica demonstrate that geometry optimization with semilocal functionals drives significant structural distortion, including the elongation of several bonds, such that subsequent single-point calculations with hybrid functionals fail to afford a localized defect even in cases where geometry optimization with the hybrid functional does localize the polaron. This has significant implications for traditional workflows in computational materials science, where semilocal functionals are often used for structure relaxation. DC-DFT calculations provide a mechanism to detect situations where delocalization error is likely to affect the results.

Poisoning density functional theory with benchmark sets of difficult systems

Large benchmark sets like GMTKN55 [Goerigk et al., Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys., 2017, 19, 32184] let us analyse the performance of density functional theory over a diverse range of systems and bonding types. However, assessing over a large and diverse set can miss cases where approaches fail badly, and can give a misleading sense of security. To this end we introduce a series of 'poison' benchmark sets, P30-5, P30-10 and P30-20, comprising systems with up to 5, 10 and 20 atoms, respectively. These sets represent the most difficult-to-model systems in GMTKN55. We expect them to be useful in developing new approximations, identifying weak points in existing ones, and to aid in selecting appropriate DFAs for computational studies involving difficult physics, e.g. catalysis.

Linear fractional charge behavior in density functional theory through dielectric tuning of conductor-like polarizable continuum model

A property of exact density functional theory is linear fractional charge behavior as electrons are added or removed from a molecule. Typical density functional approximations (DFAs) exhibit delocalization error, which overstabilizes this fractional charge. Conversely, solvent corrections have been shown to erroneously destabilize this fractional charge. This work will show that an implicit solvent correction with a tuned dielectric can be used as an ad hoc correction to offset the delocalizing character of DFAs and achieve linear fractional charge behavior. While desirable, in principle, we find that this linear charge behavior degrades the vertical ionization energies reported by DFAs. Our results reveal that the localizing character of the solvent correction and the Hartree-Fock (HF) exchange offset each other. This helps explain the decreased ratios of HF exchange to DFA exchange in long-range hybrid tuning studies that use a solvent correction.

Density Functional Calculations Based on the Exponential Ansatz

This work explores the application of the singles-based exponential ansatz to density functional calculations. In contrast to the standard approach where Kohn-Sham (KS) orbitals are determined prior to computing molecular quantities of interest, we consider the single-reference Hartree-Fock wave function as a starting point. Applying the exponential ansatz to this single reference gives an auxiliary wave function that is employed to calculate the electronic properties of the system. This wave function is determined self-consistently through the standard KS Hamiltonian but evaluated over the Hartree-Fock molecular orbital basis. By using spin-symmetry breaking, we recover size-consistent results free of unphysical fractional charges in the dissociation limit. Our method shows consistency with standard KS density functional calculations when the system geometry is similar to the equilibrium one or in repulsive configurations. For moderately long distances between atoms, not at dissociation, because of self-interaction the exponential ansatz may give instabilities in the form of large cluster amplitudes. To avoid these, this work introduces a relatively simple regularization method that preserves size-consistency and penalizes high amplitudes of the cluster operator, whereas the results remain physically meaningful. We also present the time-dependent extension of our theory and show that it can feature quantum states where multiple electrons are excited.

From Kohn-Sham to Many-Electron Energies via Step Structures in the Exchange-Correlation Potential

Accurately describing excited states within Kohn–Sham (KS) density functional theory (DFT), particularly those which induce ionization and charge transfer, remains a great challenge. Common exchange-correlation (xc) approximations are unreliable for excited states owing, in part, to the absence of a derivative discontinuity in the xc energy (Δ), which relates a many-electron energy difference to the corresponding KS energy difference. We demonstrate, analytically and numerically, how the relationship between KS and many-electron energies leads to the step structures observed in the exact xc potential in four scenarios: electron addition, molecular dissociation, excitation of a finite system, and charge transfer. We further show that steps in the potential can be obtained also with common xc approximations, as simple as the LDA, when addressed from the ensemble perspective. The article therefore highlights how capturing the relationship between KS and many-electron energies with advanced xc approximations is crucial for accurately calculating excitations, as well as the ground-state density and energy of systems which consist of distinct subsystems.

Relationships between Orbital Energies, Optical and Fundamental Gaps, and Exciton Shifts in Approximate Density Functional Theory and Quasiparticle Theory

The relationships between Kohn-Sham (KS) and generalized KS (GKS) density functional orbital energies and fundamental gaps or optical gaps raise many interesting questions including the physical meanings of KS and GKS orbital energies when computed with currently available approximate density functionals (ADFs). In this work, by examining three diverse databases with various ADFs, we examine such relations from the point of view of the exciton shift of quasiparticle theory. We start by calculating a large number of excitation energies by time-dependent density functional theory (TDDFT) with a large number of ADFs. To relate the exciton shift implicit in TDDFT to the exciton shift that is explicit in Green's function theory, we define the exciton shift in TDDFT as the difference of the response shift and the quasiparticle shift. We found a strong correlation between the response shift and the amount of Hartree-Fock exchange included in the density functional, with the response shift varying between -1 and 5 eV. This range is an order of magnitude larger than the mean errors of the TDDFT excitation energies. This result suggests that, with currently available functionals, the KS or GKS orbital energies should be treated as intermediate mathematical variables in the calculation of excitation energies rather than as the energies of independent-particle reference states for quasiparticle theory.

Spontaneous Symmetry Breaking in Cyclo[18]Carbon

After the experimental evidence of polyynic as the stable form of cyclo[18]carbon, in the present paper, using ab initio electronic structure calculations, we show that this result is a symmetry breaking event, a consequence of the second-order Jahn-Teller effect. We show that the eigenfunctions associated with lowest unoccupied molecular orbitals (LUMO) and LUMO + 1, the excited states of this ring molecule, interact with the eigenfunctions associated with the ground state (occupied states), and this interaction stabilizes the less symmetric polyynic form of cyclo[18]carbon with D_9h symmetry, instead of the cumulenic form. The frontier state interactions are responsible for the distortions in the symmetry in the electronic structures, lowering the energy and making the polyynic form the stable one with alternating triple and single bonds.

Piecewise linearity, freedom from self-interaction, and a Coulomb asymptotic potential: three related yet inequivalent properties of the exact density functional

Three properties of the exact energy functional of DFT are important in general and for spectroscopy in particular, but are not necessarily obeyed by approximate functionals. We explain what they are, why they are important, and how they are related yet inequivalent.

Fractional and Integer Charge Transfer at Semiconductor/Organic Interfaces: The Role of Hybridization and Metallicity

Inorganic/organic interfaces show two phenomenologically different types of charge transfer: On inert substrates, charge is localized, leading to a coexistence of neutral and charged molecules. Conversely, on metals, which have more available charge carriers and a larger propensity to hybridize, the charge is homogeneously delocalized. In this contribution, we use hybrid density functional theory to study the adsorption of the strong electron acceptor F4TCNQ on ZnO(10-10) as a function of the substrate's doping concentration. This system undergoes a joint charge donation/backdonation reaction. Because only the former is driven by hybridization, this allows us to study the impact of hybridization and the availability of charge carriers separately. We find that here both charge-transfer types are simultaneously at work. Whereas hybridization determines the charge localization, the charge-carrier concentration determines the amount of transferred charge. Consequently, at low doping concentrations, most of the electron acceptors become slightly positively, rather than negatively, charged.

Existence of multi-radical and closed-shell semiconducting states in post-graphene organic Dirac materials

Post-graphene organic Dirac (PGOD) materials are ordered two-dimensional networks of triply bonded sp 2 carbon nodes spaced by π-conjugated linkers. PGOD materials are natural chemical extensions of graphene that promise to have an enhanced range of properties and applications. Experimentally realised molecules based on two PGOD nodes exhibit a bi-stable closed-shell/multi-radical character that can be understood through competing Lewis resonance forms. Here, following the same rationale, we predict that similar states should be accessible in PGOD materials, which we confirm using accurate density functional theory calculations. Although for graphene the semimetallic state is always dominant, for PGOD materials this state becomes marginally meta-stable relative to open-shell multi-radical and/or closed-shell states that are stabilised through symmetry breaking, in line with analogous molecular systems. These latter states are semiconducting, increasing the potential use of PGOD materials as highly tuneable platforms for future organic nano-electronics and spintronics.

Does the ionization potential condition employed in QTP functionals mitigate the self-interaction error?

Though contrary to conventional wisdom, the interpretation of all occupied Kohn-Sham eigenvalues as vertical ionization potentials is justified by several formal and numerical arguments. Similarly, the performance of density functional approximations (DFAs) for fractionally charged systems has been extensively studied as a measure of one- and many-electron self-interaction errors (MSIEs). These complementary perspectives (initially recognized in ab initio dft) are shown to lead to the unifying concept that satisfying Bartlett's IP theorem in DFA's mitigates self-interaction errors. In this contribution, we show that the IP-optimized QTP functionals (reparameterization of CAM-B3LYP where all eigenvalues are approximately equal to vertical IPs) display reduced self-interaction errors in a variety of tests including the He₂⁺ potential curve. Conversely, the MSIE-optimized rCAM-B3LYP functional also displays accurate orbital eigenvalues. It is shown that the CAM-QTP and rCAM-B3LYP functionals show improved dissociation limits, fundamental gaps and thermochemical accuracy compared to their parent functional CAM-B3LYP.

Accurate description of the electronic structure of organic semiconductors by GW methods

Electronic properties associated with charged excitations, such as the ionization potential (IP), the electron affinity (EA), and the energy level alignment at interfaces, are critical parameters for the performance of organic electronic devices. To computationally design organic semiconductors and functional interfaces with tailored properties for target applications it is necessary to accurately predict these properties from first principles. Many-body perturbation theory is often used for this purpose within the GW approximation, where G is the one particle Green's function and W is the dynamically screened Coulomb interaction. Here, the formalism of GW methods at different levels of self-consistency is briefly introduced and some recent applications to organic semiconductors and interfaces are reviewed.

The Optical Signature of Charges in Conjugated Polymers

Electrical charge flowing through organic semiconductors drives many of today's mobile phone displays and television screens, suggesting an internally consistent model of charge-carrier properties in these materials to have manifested. In conjugated polymers, charges give rise to additional absorption of light at wavelengths longer than those absorbed by the electrically neutral species. These characteristic absorption bands are universally being related to the emergence of localized energy levels shifted into the forbidden gap of organic semiconductors due to local relaxation of the molecular geometry. However, the traditional view on these energy levels and their occupation is incompatible with expected changes in electron removal and addition energies upon charging molecules. Here, I demonstrate that local Coulomb repulsion, as captured by nonempirically optimized electronic-structure calculations, restores compatibility and suggests a different origin of the charge-induced optical transitions. These results challenge a widely accepted and long-established picture, but an improved understanding of charge carriers in molecular materials promises a more targeted development of organic and hybrid organic/inorganic (opto-)electronic devices.

Construction and application of a new dual-hybrid random phase approximation

The direct random phase approximation (dRPA) combined with Kohn-Sham reference orbitals is among the most promising tools in computational chemistry and applicable in many areas of chemistry and physics. The reason for this is that it scales as N(4) with the system size, which is a considerable advantage over the accurate ab initio wave function methods like standard coupled-cluster. dRPA also yields a considerably more accurate description of thermodynamic and electronic properties than standard density-functional theory methods. It is also able to describe strong static electron correlation effects even in large systems with a small or vanishing band gap missed by common single-reference methods. However, dRPA has several flaws due to its self-correlation error. In order to obtain accurate and precise reaction energies, barriers and noncovalent intra- and intermolecular interactions, we construct a new dual-hybrid dRPA (hybridization of exact and semilocal exchange in both the energy and the orbitals) and test the performance of this new functional on isogyric, isodesmic, hypohomodesmotic, homodesmotic, and hyperhomodesmotic reaction classes. We also use a test set of 14 Diels-Alder reactions, six atomization energies (AE6), 38 hydrocarbon atomization energies, and 100 reaction barrier heights (DBH24, HT-BH38, and NHT-BH38). For noncovalent complexes, we use the NCCE31 and S22 test sets. To test the intramolecular interactions, we use a set of alkane, cysteine, phenylalanine-glycine-glycine tripeptide, and monosaccharide conformers. We also discuss the delocalization and static correlation errors. We show that a universally accurate description of chemical properties can be provided by a large, 75% exact exchange mixing both in the calculation of the reference orbitals and the final energy.

Integer versus Fractional Charge Transfer at Metal(/Insulator)/Organic Interfaces: Cu(/NaCl)/TCNE

Semilocal and hybrid density functional theory was used to study the charge transfer and the energy-level alignment at a representative interface between an extended metal substrate and an organic adsorbate layer. Upon suppressing electronic coupling between the adsorbate and the substrate by inserting thin, insulating layers of NaCl, the hybrid functional localizes charge. The laterally inhomogeneous charge distribution resulting from this spontaneous breaking of translational symmetry is reflected in observables such as the molecular geometry, the valence and core density of states, and the evolution of the work function with molecular coverage, which we discuss for different growth modes. We found that the amount of charge transfer is determined, to a significant extent, by the ratio of the lateral spacing of the molecules and their distance to the metal. Therefore, charge transfer does not only depend on the electronic structure of the individual components but, just as importantly, on the interface geometry.

Theoretical design of a shallow donor in diamond by lithium-nitrogen codoping

We propose a new substitutional impurity complex in diamond composed of a lithium atom that is tetrahedrally coordinated by four nitrogen atoms (LiN(4)). Density functional calculations are consistent with the hydrogenic impurity model, both supporting the prediction that this complex is a shallow donor with an activation energy of 0.27±0.06 eV. Three paths to the experimental realization of the LiN(4) complex in diamond are proposed and theoretically analyzed.

Excitation Gaps of Finite-Sized Systems from Optimally Tuned Range-Separated Hybrid Functionals

Excitation gaps are of considerable significance in electronic structure theory. Two different gaps are of particular interest. The fundamental gap is defined by charged excitations, as the difference between the first ionization potential and the first electron affinity. The optical gap is defined by a neutral excitation, as the difference between the energies of the lowest dipole-allowed excited state and the ground state. Within many-body perturbation theory, the fundamental gap is the difference between the corresponding lowest quasi-hole and quasi-electron excitation energies, and the optical gap is addressed by including the interaction between a quasi-electron and a quasi-hole. A long-standing challenge has been the attainment of a similar description within density functional theory (DFT), with much debate on whether this is an achievable goal even in principle. Recently, we have constructed and applied a new approach to this problem. Anchored in the rigorous theoretical framework of the generalized Kohn-Sham equation, our method is based on a range-split hybrid functional that uses exact long-range exchange. Its main novel feature is that the range-splitting parameter is not a universal constant but rather is determined from first principles, per system, based on satisfaction of the ionization potential theorem. For finite-sized objects, this DFT approach mimics successfully, to the best of our knowledge for the first time, the quasi-particle picture of many-body theory. Specifically, it allows for the extraction of both the fundamental and the optical gap from one underlying functional, based on the HOMO-LUMO gap of a ground-state DFT calculation and the lowest excitation energy of a linear-response time-dependent DFT calculation, respectively. In particular, it produces the correct optical gap for the difficult case of charge-transfer and charge-transfer-like scenarios, where conventional functionals are known to fail. In this perspective, we overview the formal and practical challenges associated with gap calculations, explain our new approach and how it overcomes previous difficulties, and survey its application to a variety of systems.