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Liu H, Wang A, Zhang P, Ma C, Chen C, Liu Z, Zhang YQ, Feng B, Cheng P, Zhao J, Chen L, Wu K. Atomic-scale manipulation of single-polaron in a two-dimensional semiconductor. Nat Commun 2023; 14:3690. [PMID: 37344475 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-39361-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2023] [Accepted: 06/09/2023] [Indexed: 06/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Polaron is a composite quasiparticle derived from an excess carrier trapped by local lattice distortion, and it has been studied extensively for decades both theoretically and experimentally. However, atomic-scale creation and manipulation of single-polarons in real space have still not been achieved so far, which precludes the atomistic understanding of the properties of polarons as well as their applications. Herein, using scanning tunneling microscopy, we succeeded to create single polarons in a monolayer two-dimensional (2D) semiconductor, CoCl2. Combined with first-principles calculations, two stable polaron configurations, centered at atop and hollow sites, respectively, have been revealed. Remarkably, a series of manipulation progresses - from creation, erasure, to transition - can be accurately implemented on individual polarons. Our results pave the way to understand the physics of polaron at atomic level, and the easy control of single polarons in 2D semiconductor may open the door to 2D polaronics including the data storage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huiru Liu
- Institute of Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100190, Beijing, China
- School of Physical Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100190, Beijing, China
| | - Aolei Wang
- Department of Physics, University of Science and Technology of China, 230026, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Ping Zhang
- Institute of Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100190, Beijing, China
- School of Physical Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100190, Beijing, China
| | - Chen Ma
- Institute of Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100190, Beijing, China
- School of Physical Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100190, Beijing, China
| | - Caiyun Chen
- Institute of Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100190, Beijing, China
- School of Physical Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100190, Beijing, China
| | - Zijia Liu
- Institute of Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100190, Beijing, China
- School of Physical Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100190, Beijing, China
- Songshan Lake Materials Laboratory, Dongguan, 523808, Guangdong, China
| | - Yi-Qi Zhang
- Institute of Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100190, Beijing, China
- School of Physical Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100190, Beijing, China
| | - Baojie Feng
- Institute of Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100190, Beijing, China
- School of Physical Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100190, Beijing, China
- Interdisciplinary Institute of Light-Element Quantum Materials and Research Center for Light-Element Advanced Materials, Peking University, 100871, Beijing, China
| | - Peng Cheng
- Institute of Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100190, Beijing, China
- School of Physical Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100190, Beijing, China
| | - Jin Zhao
- Department of Physics, University of Science and Technology of China, 230026, Hefei, Anhui, China.
- ICQD/Hefei National Research Center for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, University of Science and Technology of China, 230026, Hefei, Anhui, China.
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, 15260, PA, USA.
- Hefei National Laboratory, University of Science and Technology of China, 230088, Hefei, Anhui, China.
| | - Lan Chen
- Institute of Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100190, Beijing, China.
- School of Physical Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100190, Beijing, China.
- Songshan Lake Materials Laboratory, Dongguan, 523808, Guangdong, China.
| | - Kehui Wu
- Institute of Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100190, Beijing, China.
- School of Physical Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100190, Beijing, China.
- Songshan Lake Materials Laboratory, Dongguan, 523808, Guangdong, China.
- Interdisciplinary Institute of Light-Element Quantum Materials and Research Center for Light-Element Advanced Materials, Peking University, 100871, Beijing, China.
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2
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Liu S, Wolf M, Kumagai T. Nanoscale Heating of an Ultrathin Oxide Film Studied by Tip-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2022; 128:206803. [PMID: 35657872 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.128.206803] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2020] [Revised: 03/13/2022] [Accepted: 04/11/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
We report on the nanoscale heating mechanism of an ultrathin ZnO film using low-temperature tip-enhanced Raman spectroscopy. Under the resonance condition, intense Stokes and anti-Stokes Raman scattering can be observed for the phonon modes of a two-monolayer (ML) ZnO on an Ag(111) surface, enabling us to monitor local heating at the nanoscale. It is revealed that the local heating originates mainly from inelastic electron tunneling through the electronic resonance when the bias voltage exceeds the conduction band edge of the 2-ML ZnO. When the bias voltage is lower than the conduction band edge, the local heating arises from two different contributions, namely direct optical excitation between the interface state and the conduction band of 2-ML ZnO or injection of photoexcited electrons from an Ag tip into the conduction band. These optical heating processes are promoted by localized surface plasmon excitation. Simultaneous mapping of tip-enhanced Raman spectroscopy and scanning tunneling spectroscopy for 2-ML ZnO including an atomic-scale defect demonstrates visualizing a correlation between the heating efficiency and the local density of states, which further allows us to analyze the local electron-phonon coupling strength with ∼2 nm spatial resolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuyi Liu
- Department of Physical Chemistry, Fritz-Haber Institute of the Max-Planck Society, Faradayweg 4-6, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Martin Wolf
- Department of Physical Chemistry, Fritz-Haber Institute of the Max-Planck Society, Faradayweg 4-6, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Takashi Kumagai
- Department of Physical Chemistry, Fritz-Haber Institute of the Max-Planck Society, Faradayweg 4-6, 14195 Berlin, Germany
- Center for Mesoscopic Sciences, Institute for Molecular Science, Okazaki 444-8585, Japan
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3
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Rosławska A, Merino P, Leon CC, Grewal A, Etzkorn M, Kuhnke K, Kern K. Gigahertz Frame Rate Imaging of Charge-Injection Dynamics in a Molecular Light Source. NANO LETTERS 2021; 21:4577-4583. [PMID: 34038142 PMCID: PMC8193635 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.1c00328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2021] [Revised: 04/22/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Light sources on the scale of single molecules can be addressed and characterized at their proper sub-nanometer scale by scanning tunneling microscopy-induced luminescence (STML). Such a source can be driven by defined short charge pulses while the luminescence is detected with sub-nanosecond resolution. We introduce an approach to concurrently image the molecular emitter, which is based on an individual defect, with its local environment along with its luminescence dynamics at a resolution of a billion frames per second. The observed dynamics can be assigned to the single electron capture occurring in the low-nanosecond regime. While the emitter's location on the surface remains fixed, the scanning of the tip modifies the energy landscape for charge injection into the defect. The principle of measurement is extendable to fundamental processes beyond charge transfer, like exciton diffusion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Rosławska
- Max-Planck-Institut
für Festkörperforschung, D-70569 Stuttgart, Germany
- Université
de Strasbourg, CNRS, IPCMS, UMR 7504, F-67000 Strasbourg, France
| | - Pablo Merino
- Max-Planck-Institut
für Festkörperforschung, D-70569 Stuttgart, Germany
- Instituto
de Ciencia de Materiales de Madrid, CSIC, E-28049 Madrid, Spain
- Instituto
de Física Fundamental, CSIC, E-28006 Madrid, Spain
| | | | - Abhishek Grewal
- Max-Planck-Institut
für Festkörperforschung, D-70569 Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Markus Etzkorn
- Max-Planck-Institut
für Festkörperforschung, D-70569 Stuttgart, Germany
- Institut
für Angewandte Physik, TU Braunschweig, D-38106 Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Klaus Kuhnke
- Max-Planck-Institut
für Festkörperforschung, D-70569 Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Klaus Kern
- Max-Planck-Institut
für Festkörperforschung, D-70569 Stuttgart, Germany
- Institut
de Physique, École Polytechnique Fédérale de
Lausanne, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
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4
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Mueller SM, Kim D, McMillan SR, Tjung SJ, Repicky JJ, Gant S, Lang E, Bergmann F, Werner K, Chowdhury E, Asthagiri A, Flatté ME, Gupta JA. Tunable tunnel barriers in a semiconductor via ionization of individual atoms. JOURNAL OF PHYSICS. CONDENSED MATTER : AN INSTITUTE OF PHYSICS JOURNAL 2021; 33:275002. [PMID: 33878736 DOI: 10.1088/1361-648x/abf9bd] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2020] [Accepted: 04/20/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
We report scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) studies of individual adatoms deposited on an InSb(110) surface. The adatoms can be reproducibly dropped off from the STM tip by voltage pulses, and impact tunneling into the surface by up to ∼100×. The spatial extent and magnitude of the tunneling effect are widely tunable by imaging conditions such as bias voltage, set current and photoillumination. We attribute the effect to occupation of a (+/0) charge transition level, and switching of the associated adatom-induced band bending. The effect in STM topographic images is well reproduced by transport modeling of filling and emptying rates as a function of the tip position. STM atomic contrast and tunneling spectra are in good agreement with density functional theory calculations for In adatoms. The adatom ionization effect can extend to distances greater than 50 nm away, which we attribute to the low concentration and low binding energy of the residual donors in the undoped InSb crystal. These studies demonstrate how individual atoms can be used to sensitively control current flow in nanoscale devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara M Mueller
- Department of Physics, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, United States of America
| | - Dongjoon Kim
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, United States of America
| | - Stephen R McMillan
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, United States of America
| | - Steven J Tjung
- Department of Physics, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, United States of America
| | - Jacob J Repicky
- Department of Physics, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, United States of America
| | - Stephen Gant
- Department of Physics, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, United States of America
| | - Evan Lang
- Department of Physics, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, United States of America
| | - Fedor Bergmann
- Bergmann Messgeraete Entwicklung KG, Kocheler Strasse 101, 82418 Murnau, Germany
| | - Kevin Werner
- Department of Physics, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, United States of America
- BAE Systems, 130 Daniel Webster Hwy., MER15-1813, Merrimack, NH 03054, United States of America
| | - Enam Chowdhury
- Department of Physics, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, United States of America
- Department of Material Science and Engineering, Ohio State University, Columbus OH 43210, United States of America
| | - Aravind Asthagiri
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, United States of America
| | - Michael E Flatté
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, United States of America
| | - Jay A Gupta
- Department of Physics, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, United States of America
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5
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Gou J, Xia B, Wang X, Cheng P, Wee ATS, Duan W, Xu Y, Wu K, Chen L. Realizing quinary charge states of solitary defects in two-dimensional intermetallic semiconductor. Natl Sci Rev 2021; 9:nwab070. [PMID: 35233286 PMCID: PMC8881213 DOI: 10.1093/nsr/nwab070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2020] [Revised: 02/17/2021] [Accepted: 04/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Creating and manipulating multiple charge states of solitary defects in semiconductors is of essential importance for solitary defect electronics, but is fundamentally limited by Coulomb's law. Achieving this objective is challenging, due to the conflicting requirements of the localization necessary for the sizable band gap and delocalization necessary for a low charging energy. Here, using scanning tunneling microscopy/spectroscopy experiments and first-principles calculations, we realized exotic quinary charge states of solitary defects in two-dimensional intermetallic semiconductor Sn2Bi. We also observed an ultralow defect charging energy that increases sublinearly with charge number rather than displaying the usual quadratic behavior. Our work suggests a promising route for constructing multiple defect-charge states by designing intermetallic semiconductors, and opens new opportunities for developing quantum devices with charge-based quantum states.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Gou
- Institute of Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
- School of Physics, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
- Department of Physics, National University of Singapore, Singapore117542, Singapore
| | - Bingyu Xia
- State Key Laboratory of Low-Dimensional Quantum Physics, Department of Physics, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Xuguang Wang
- Institute of Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
- School of Physics, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Peng Cheng
- Institute of Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
- School of Physics, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Andrew Thye Shen Wee
- Department of Physics, National University of Singapore, Singapore117542, Singapore
| | - Wenhui Duan
- State Key Laboratory of Low-Dimensional Quantum Physics, Department of Physics, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
- Institute for Advanced Study, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Quantum Matter, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Yong Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Low-Dimensional Quantum Physics, Department of Physics, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Quantum Matter, Beijing 100871, China
- RIKEN Center for Emergent Matter Science (CEMS), Wako, Saitama 351-0198, Japan
| | - Kehui Wu
- Institute of Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
- School of Physics, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
- Songshan Lake Materials Laboratory, Dongguan 523808, China
| | - Lan Chen
- Institute of Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
- School of Physics, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
- Songshan Lake Materials Laboratory, Dongguan 523808, China
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6
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Mallet P, Chiapello F, Okuno H, Boukari H, Jamet M, Veuillen JY. Bound Hole States Associated to Individual Vanadium Atoms Incorporated into Monolayer WSe_{2}. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2020; 125:036802. [PMID: 32745415 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.125.036802] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2019] [Accepted: 06/09/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Doping a two-dimensional semiconductor with magnetic atoms is a possible route to induce magnetism in the material. We report on the atomic structure and electronic properties of monolayer WSe_{2} intentionally doped with vanadium atoms by means of scanning transmission electron microscopy and scanning tunneling microscopy and spectroscopy. Most of the V atoms incorporate at W sites. These V_{W} dopants are negatively charged, which induces a localized bound state located 140 meV above the valence band maximum. The overlap of the electronic potential of two charged V_{W} dopants generates additional in-gap states. Eventually, the negative charge may suppress the magnetic moment on the V_{W} dopants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pierre Mallet
- Université Grenoble Alpes, Institut Neel, F-38042 Grenoble, France
- CNRS, Institut Neel, F-38042 Grenoble, France
| | - Florian Chiapello
- Université Grenoble Alpes, Institut Neel, F-38042 Grenoble, France
- CNRS, Institut Neel, F-38042 Grenoble, France
| | - Hanako Okuno
- Université Grenoble Alpes, CEA, IRIG-MEM, 38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Hervé Boukari
- Université Grenoble Alpes, Institut Neel, F-38042 Grenoble, France
- CNRS, Institut Neel, F-38042 Grenoble, France
| | - Matthieu Jamet
- Université Grenoble Alpes, CEA, CNRS, Grenoble INP, IRIG-SPINTEC, 38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Jean-Yves Veuillen
- Université Grenoble Alpes, Institut Neel, F-38042 Grenoble, France
- CNRS, Institut Neel, F-38042 Grenoble, France
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7
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Gou J, Kong LJ, Li WB, Sheng SX, Li H, Meng S, Cheng P, Wu KH, Chen L. Scanning tunneling microscopy investigations of unoccupied surface states in two-dimensional semiconducting β-√3 × √3-Bi/Si(111) surface. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2018; 20:20188-20193. [PMID: 30027957 DOI: 10.1039/c8cp01356j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Two-dimensional surface structures often host a surface state in the bulk gap, which plays a crucial role in the surface electron transport. The diversity of in-gap surface states extends the category of two-dimensional systems and gives us more choices in material applications. In this article, we investigated the surface states of β-√3 × √3-Bi/Si(111) surface by scanning tunneling microscopy. Two nearly free electron states in the bulk gap of silicon were found in the unoccupied states. Combined with first-principles calculations, these two states were verified to be the Bi-contributed surface states and electron-accumulation-induced quantum well states. Due to the spin-orbit coupling of Bi atoms, Bi-contributed surface states exhibit free-electron Rashba splitting. The in-gap surface states with spin splitting can possibly be used for spin polarized electronics applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Gou
- Institute of Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China.
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8
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Zhang Y, Wang Y, Liao P, Wang K, Huang Z, Liu J, Chen Q, Jiang J, Wu K. Detection and Manipulation of Charge States for Double-Decker DyPc 2 Molecules on Ultrathin CuO Films. ACS NANO 2018; 12:2991-2997. [PMID: 29485853 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.8b00751] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Charge states of lanthanide double-decker phthalocyanines complexes significantly influence their geometrical structures and magnetic properties. In this study, the charge states of single DyPc2 molecules on an ultrathin CuO film were detected by scanning tunneling microscopy and spectroscopy in magnetic fields. Four types of adsorptions of DyPc2 molecules on CuO were experimentally observed. Without applying voltages, two of them were positively charged with the other two at the neutral state. By controlling the sample bias, two types of neutral molecules can be switched to the positively and negatively charged states, respectively. This manipulation was not realized for the DyPc2 cations. A way to precisely detect the molecular charge states with and without current is beneficial for the development of molecular electronics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yajie Zhang
- BNLMS, College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering , Peking University , Beijing 100871 , China
| | - Yongfeng Wang
- Key Laboratory for the Physics and Chemistry of Nanodevices, Department of Electronics , Peking University , Beijing 100871 , China
| | - Peilin Liao
- School of Materials Engineering , Purdue University , West Lafayette , Indiana 47907 , United States
| | - Kang Wang
- Department of Chemistry , Beijing University of Science and Technology , Beijing 100083 , China
| | - Zhichao Huang
- BNLMS, College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering , Peking University , Beijing 100871 , China
| | - Jing Liu
- BNLMS, College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering , Peking University , Beijing 100871 , China
| | - Qiwei Chen
- BNLMS, College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering , Peking University , Beijing 100871 , China
| | - Jianzhuang Jiang
- Department of Chemistry , Beijing University of Science and Technology , Beijing 100083 , China
| | - Kai Wu
- BNLMS, College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering , Peking University , Beijing 100871 , China
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9
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Ming F, Johnston S, Mulugeta D, Smith TS, Vilmercati P, Lee G, Maier TA, Snijders PC, Weitering HH. Realization of a Hole-Doped Mott Insulator on a Triangular Silicon Lattice. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2017; 119:266802. [PMID: 29328725 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.119.266802] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The physics of doped Mott insulators is at the heart of some of the most exotic physical phenomena in materials research including insulator-metal transitions, colossal magnetoresistance, and high-temperature superconductivity in layered perovskite compounds. Advances in this field would greatly benefit from the availability of new material systems with a similar richness of physical phenomena but with fewer chemical and structural complications in comparison to oxides. Using scanning tunneling microscopy and spectroscopy, we show that such a system can be realized on a silicon platform. The adsorption of one-third monolayer of Sn atoms on a Si(111) surface produces a triangular surface lattice with half filled dangling bond orbitals. Modulation hole doping of these dangling bonds unveils clear hallmarks of Mott physics, such as spectral weight transfer and the formation of quasiparticle states at the Fermi level, well-defined Fermi contour segments, and a sharp singularity in the density of states. These observations are remarkably similar to those made in complex oxide materials, including high-temperature superconductors, but highly extraordinary within the realm of conventional sp-bonded semiconductor materials. It suggests that exotic quantum matter phases can be realized and engineered on silicon-based materials platforms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fangfei Ming
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, USA
| | - Steve Johnston
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, USA
- Joint Institute of Advanced Materials at The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, USA
| | - Daniel Mulugeta
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, USA
| | - Tyler S Smith
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, USA
| | - Paolo Vilmercati
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, USA
- Joint Institute of Advanced Materials at The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, USA
| | - Geunseop Lee
- Department of Physics, Inha University, Inchon 402-751, Korea
| | - Thomas A Maier
- Computational Science and Engineering Division and Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, USA
| | - Paul C Snijders
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, USA
- Materials Science and Technology Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, USA
| | - Hanno H Weitering
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, USA
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10
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Abstract
Double quantum dots (DQDs) are a versatile platform for solid-state physics, quantum computation and nanotechnology. The micro-fabrication techniques commonly used to fabricate DQDs are difficult to extend to the atomic scale. Using an alternative approach, which relies on scanning tunneling microscopy and spectroscopy, we prepared a minimal DQD in a wide band-gap semiconductor matrix. It is comprised of a pair of strongly coupled donor atoms that can each be doubly charged. The donor excitation diagram of this system mimicks the charge stability diagram observed in transport measurements of DQDs. We furthermore illustrate how the charge and spin degrees of freedom of the minimal DQD may be used to obtain a single quantum bit and to prepare a Bell state. The results open an intriguing perspective for quantum electronics with atomic-scale structures.
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11
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Spatially resolved photoresponse on individual ZnO nanorods: correlating morphology, defects and conductivity. Sci Rep 2016; 6:28468. [PMID: 27334573 PMCID: PMC4917851 DOI: 10.1038/srep28468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2016] [Accepted: 06/02/2016] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Electrically active native point defects have a significant impact on the optical and electrical properties of ZnO nanostructures. Control of defect distribution and a detailed understanding of their physical properties are central to designing ZnO in novel functional forms and architecture, which ultimately decides device performance. Defect control is primarily achieved by either engineering nanostructure morphology by tailoring growth techniques or doping. Here, we report conducting atomic force microscopy studies of spatially resolved photoresponse properties on ZnO nanorod surfaces. The photoresponse for super-band gap, ultraviolet excitations show a direct correlation between surface morphology and photoactivity localization. Additionally, the system exhibits significant photoresponse with sub-bandgap, green illumination; the signature energy associated with the deep level oxygen vacancy states. While the local current-voltage characteristics provide evidence of multiple transport processes and quantifies the photoresponse, the local time-resolved photoresponse data evidences large variations in response times (90 ms-50 s), across the surface of a nanorod. The spatially varied photoconductance and the range in temporal response display a complex interplay of morphology, defects and connectivity that brings about the true colour of these ZnO nanostructures.
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12
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Nilius N. Exploring routes to tailor the physical and chemical properties of oxides via doping: an STM study. JOURNAL OF PHYSICS. CONDENSED MATTER : AN INSTITUTE OF PHYSICS JOURNAL 2015; 27:303001. [PMID: 26151239 DOI: 10.1088/0953-8984/27/30/303001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Doping opens fascinating possibilities for tailoring the electronic, optical, magnetic, and chemical properties of oxides. The dopants perturb the intrinsic behavior of the material by generating charge centers for electron transfer into adsorbates, by inducing new energy levels for electronic and optical excitations, and by altering the surface morphology and hence the adsorption and reactivity pattern. Despite a vivid scientific interest, knowledge on doped oxides is limited when compared to semiconductors, which reflects the higher complexity and the insulating nature of many oxides. In fact, atomic-scale studies, aiming at a mechanistic understanding of dopant-related processes, are still scarce.In this article, we review our scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) experiments on thin, crystalline oxide films with a defined doping level. We demonstrate how the impurities alter the surface morphology and produce cationic/anionic vacancies in order to keep the system charge neutral. We discuss how individual dopants can be visualized in the lattice, even if they reside in subsurface layers. By means of STM-conductance and x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, we determine the electronic impact of dopants, including the energies of their eigen states and local band-bending effects in the host oxide. Electronic transitions between dopant-induced gap states give rise to new optical modes, as detected with STM luminescence spectroscopy. From a chemical perspective, dopants are introduced to improve the redox potential of oxide materials. Electron transfer from Mo-donors, for example, alters the growth behavior of gold and activates O2 molecules on a wide-gap CaO surface. Such results demonstrate the enormous potential of doped oxides in heterogeneous catalysis. Our experiments address the issue of doping from a fundamental viewpoint, posing questions on the lattice position, charge state, and electron-transfer potential of the impurity ions. Whether doped oxides are suitable to catalyze surface reactions needs to be explored in more applied studies in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niklas Nilius
- University of Oldenburg, Institute of Physics, Carl v. Ossietzky Str. 9-11, D-26111 Oldenburg, Germany
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13
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Liu H, Zheng H, Yang F, Jiao L, Chen J, Ho W, Gao C, Jia J, Xie M. Line and Point Defects in MoSe2 Bilayer Studied by Scanning Tunneling Microscopy and Spectroscopy. ACS NANO 2015; 9:6619-6625. [PMID: 26051223 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.5b02789] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Bilayer (BL) MoSe2 films grown by molecular-beam epitaxy (MBE) are studied by scanning tunneling microscopy and spectroscopy (STM/S). Similar to monolayer (ML) films, networks of inversion domain boundary (DB) defects are observed both in the top and bottom layers of BL MoSe2, and often they are seen spatially correlated such that one is on top of the other. There are also isolated ones in the bottom layer without companion in the top-layer and are detected by STM/S through quantum tunneling of the defect states through the barrier of the MoSe2 ML. Comparing the DB states in BL MoSe2 with that of ML film reveals some common features as well as differences. Quantum confinement of the defect states is indicated. Point defects in BL MoSe2 are also observed by STM/S, where ionization of the donor defect by the tip-induced electric field is evidenced. These results are of great fundamental interests as well as practical relevance of devices made of MoSe2 ultrathin layers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongjun Liu
- †Physics Department, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong, China
| | - Hao Zheng
- †Physics Department, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong, China
- ‡Key Laboratory of Artificial Structures and Quantum Control (Ministry of Education), Department of Physics and Astronomy, Shanghai Jiaotong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai 200240, China
- §Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, Department of Physics and Astronomy, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, P. R. China
| | - Fang Yang
- ‡Key Laboratory of Artificial Structures and Quantum Control (Ministry of Education), Department of Physics and Astronomy, Shanghai Jiaotong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Lu Jiao
- †Physics Department, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong, China
| | - Jinglei Chen
- †Physics Department, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong, China
| | - Wingkin Ho
- †Physics Department, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong, China
| | - Chunlei Gao
- ‡Key Laboratory of Artificial Structures and Quantum Control (Ministry of Education), Department of Physics and Astronomy, Shanghai Jiaotong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai 200240, China
- §Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, Department of Physics and Astronomy, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, P. R. China
| | - Jinfeng Jia
- ‡Key Laboratory of Artificial Structures and Quantum Control (Ministry of Education), Department of Physics and Astronomy, Shanghai Jiaotong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai 200240, China
- §Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, Department of Physics and Astronomy, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, P. R. China
| | - Maohai Xie
- †Physics Department, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong, China
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14
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Zheng H, Weismann A, Berndt R. Tuning the electron transport at single donors in zinc oxide with a scanning tunnelling microscope. Nat Commun 2015; 5:2992. [PMID: 24390611 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms3992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2013] [Accepted: 11/22/2013] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
In devices like the single-electron transistor the detailed transport properties of a nanostructure can be measured by tuning its energy levels with a gate voltage. The scanning tunnelling microscope in contrast usually lacks such a gate electrode. Here we demonstrate tuning of the levels of a donor in a scanning tunnelling microscope without a third electrode. The potential and the position of the tip are used to locally control band bending. Conductance maps in this parameter space reveal Coulomb diamonds known from three-terminal data from single-electron transistors and provide information on charging transitions, binding energies and vibrational excitations. The analogy to single-electron transistor data suggests a new way of extracting these key quantities without making any assumptions about the unknown shape of the scanning tunnelling microscope tip.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao Zheng
- Institut für Experimentelle und Angewandte Physik, Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel, D-24098 Kiel, Germany
| | - Alexander Weismann
- Institut für Experimentelle und Angewandte Physik, Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel, D-24098 Kiel, Germany
| | - Richard Berndt
- Institut für Experimentelle und Angewandte Physik, Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel, D-24098 Kiel, Germany
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15
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Cui Y, Tosoni S, Schneider WD, Pacchioni G, Nilius N, Freund HJ. Phonon-mediated electron transport through CaO thin films. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2015; 114:016804. [PMID: 25615494 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.114.016804] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Scanning tunneling microscopy has developed into a powerful tool for the characterization of conductive surfaces, for which the overlap of tip and sample wave functions determines the image contrast. On insulating layers, as the CaO thin film grown on Mo(001) investigated here, direct overlap between initial and final states is not enabled anymore and electrons are transported via hopping through the conduction-band states of the oxide. Carrier transport is accompanied by strong phonon excitations in this case, imprinting an oscillatory signature on the differential conductance spectra of the system. The phonons show a characteristic spatial dependence and become softer around lattice irregularities in the oxide film, such as dislocation lines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Cui
- Fritz-Haber-Institut der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, Faradayweg 4-6, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Sergio Tosoni
- Dipartimento di Scienza dei Materiali, Università di Milano-Bicocca, via Cozzi 53, 20125 Milano, Italy
| | - Wolf-Dieter Schneider
- Fritz-Haber-Institut der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, Faradayweg 4-6, 14195 Berlin, Germany and Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Institute of Physics, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Gianfranco Pacchioni
- Dipartimento di Scienza dei Materiali, Università di Milano-Bicocca, via Cozzi 53, 20125 Milano, Italy
| | - Niklas Nilius
- Fritz-Haber-Institut der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, Faradayweg 4-6, 14195 Berlin, Germany and Carl von Ossietzky Universität Oldenburg, Institut für Physik, D-26111 Oldenburg, Germany
| | - Hans-Joachim Freund
- Fritz-Haber-Institut der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, Faradayweg 4-6, 14195 Berlin, Germany
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16
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Bandopadhyay K, Mitra J. Zn interstitials and O vacancies responsible for n-type ZnO: what do the emission spectra reveal? RSC Adv 2015. [DOI: 10.1039/c5ra00355e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Evidencing interstitial Zn related defect states inside the conduction band of Zn-rich ZnO nanorods.
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Affiliation(s)
- K. Bandopadhyay
- School of Physics
- Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Thiruvananthapuram
- Thiruvananthapuram 695016
- India
| | - J. Mitra
- School of Physics
- Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Thiruvananthapuram
- Thiruvananthapuram 695016
- India
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17
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Winget P, Schirra LK, Cornil D, Li H, Coropceanu V, Ndione PF, Sigdel AK, Ginley DS, Berry JJ, Shim J, Kim H, Kippelen B, Brédas JL, Monti OLA. Defect-driven interfacial electronic structures at an organic/metal-oxide semiconductor heterojunction. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2014; 26:4711-4716. [PMID: 24830796 DOI: 10.1002/adma.201305351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2013] [Revised: 04/19/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
The electronic structure of the hybrid interface between ZnO and the prototypical organic semiconductor PTCDI is investigated via a combination of ultraviolet and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (UPS/XPS) and density functional theory (DFT) calculations. The interfacial electronic interactions lead to a large interface dipole due to substantial charge transfer from ZnO to 3,4,9,10-perylenetetracarboxylicdiimide (PTCDI), which can be properly described only when accounting for surface defects that confer ZnO its n-type properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Winget
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry and Center for Organic Photonics and Electronics, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia, 30332-0400
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18
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Cui Y, Shao X, Prada S, Giordano L, Pacchioni G, Freund HJ, Nilius N. Surface defects and their impact on the electronic structure of Mo-doped CaO films: an STM and DFT study. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2014; 16:12764-72. [DOI: 10.1039/c4cp01565g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Scanning tunneling microscopy and DFT calculations are used to probe the local electronic structure of a Mo-doped CaO film.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Cui
- Fritz-Haber-Institut der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft
- D-14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Xiang Shao
- Fritz-Haber-Institut der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft
- D-14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Stefano Prada
- Dipartimento di Scienza dei Materiali
- Università di Milano-Bicocca
- 20125 Milano, Italy
| | - Livia Giordano
- Dipartimento di Scienza dei Materiali
- Università di Milano-Bicocca
- 20125 Milano, Italy
| | - Gianfranco Pacchioni
- Dipartimento di Scienza dei Materiali
- Università di Milano-Bicocca
- 20125 Milano, Italy
| | | | - Niklas Nilius
- Fritz-Haber-Institut der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft
- D-14195 Berlin, Germany
- Institut für Physik
- Carl von Ossietzky Universität Oldenburg
- D-26111 Oldenburg, Germany
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19
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Münnich G, Donarini A, Wenderoth M, Repp J. Fixing the energy scale in scanning tunneling microscopy on semiconductor surfaces. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2013; 111:216802. [PMID: 24313511 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.111.216802] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
In scanning tunneling experiments on semiconductor surfaces, the energy scale within the tunneling junction is usually unknown due to tip-induced band bending. Here, we experimentally recover the zero point of the energy scale by combining scanning tunneling microscopy with Kelvin probe force spectroscopy. With this technique, we revisit shallow acceptors buried in GaAs. Enhanced acceptor-related conductance is observed in negative, zero, and positive band-bending regimes. An Anderson-Hubbard model is used to rationalize our findings, capturing the crossover between the acceptor state being part of an impurity band for zero band bending and the acceptor state being split off and localized for strong negative or positive band bending, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerhard Münnich
- Institute of Experimental and Applied Physics, University of Regensburg, 93053 Regensburg, Germany
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20
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Sarkar A, Chakrabarti M, Bhowmick D, Chakrabarti A, Ray SK, Rafaja D, Sanyal D. Defects in 6 MeV H+ irradiated hydrothermal ZnO single crystal. JOURNAL OF PHYSICS. CONDENSED MATTER : AN INSTITUTE OF PHYSICS JOURNAL 2013; 25:385501. [PMID: 23988867 DOI: 10.1088/0953-8984/25/38/385501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
The effect of 6 MeV H(+) irradiation on hydrothermally grown ZnO single crystal has been investigated using high resolution x-ray diffraction (HRXRD) and optical absorption (ultraviolet-visible) spectroscopy. The increase of the diffuse scattering in the reciprocal space maps measured using HRXRD indicates an increase of the point defect density upon irradiation. Within the penetration depth of x-rays of several micrometres, the defect density increased with increasing distance from the sample surface. On the other hand, the near band gap optical absorption became sharper for the irradiated crystal. This reflects enhanced band to band absorption and reduced sub-band gap absorption due to defects. Temperature dependent photoluminescence spectra of the pristine sample show negative thermal quenching (NTQ) of the luminescence which is due to the presence of two or more donor related defects. Upon irradiation, a single dominant donor bound transition can be found without any temperature induced NTQ. Enhancement of the band edge luminescence and reduction of the defect related luminescence is observed at 10 K. Such changes have been discussed in the light of the hydrogen present in the as-grown state of hydrothermal ZnO.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Sarkar
- Department of Physics, Bangabasi Morning College, 19 Rajkumar Chakraborty Sarani, Kolkata 700 009, India
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21
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Zheng H, Gruyters M, Pehlke E, Berndt R. "Magic" vicinal zinc oxide surfaces. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2013; 111:086101. [PMID: 24010455 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.111.086101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
The structure of (0001) oriented ZnO single crystal surfaces is investigated by scanning tunneling microscopy. Depending on the preparation conditions, faceting of the crystals into large areas of {101¯4} surface orientation occurs. This restructuring of the surface is shown to be a consequence of dipole compensation and charge neutralization. A new stabilization mechanism of polar oxide surfaces is found which is based on the formation of vicinal surfaces with special electronic and structural properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao Zheng
- Institut für Experimentelle und Angewandte Physik, Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel, 24098 Kiel, Germany
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22
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Zheng H, Weismann A, Berndt R. Manipulation of subsurface donors in ZnO. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2013; 110:226101. [PMID: 23767734 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.110.226101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2013] [Revised: 04/17/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Single donors close to the ZnO(0001) surface are investigated with scanning tunneling microscopy. Their binding energies and depths are determined from spatially resolved spectra of the differential conductance. At elevated bias of the STM tip, vertical motion of the donors can be induced. The direction of the motion can be controlled by the bias polarity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao Zheng
- Institut für Experimentelle und Angewandte Physik, Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel, D-24098 Kiel, Germany.
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23
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Lv J, Li C, BelBruno JJ. Characteristics of point defects on the optical properties of ZnO: revealed by Al–H co-doping and post-annealing. RSC Adv 2013. [DOI: 10.1039/c3ra40837j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
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24
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Barke I, Polei S, v Oeynhausen V, Meiwes-Broer KH. Confined doping on a metallic atomic chain structure. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2012; 109:066801. [PMID: 23006291 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.109.066801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
On Si(111)-(5×2)-Au it is shown that metallic sections of quantum wires between two doping adatoms establish a local electronic structure which is primarily defined by the section length. Such confined doping is a direct consequence of reduced dimensionality and is not observed in higher dimensions. Within a chain segment, the effect of a spatially independent charge-carrier concentration is superimposed by a Coulomb-like interaction due to the positively charged dopants. This offers a natural explanation for the relatively broad photoemission features and the complex appearance in scanning tunneling microscopy and spectroscopy images.
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Affiliation(s)
- I Barke
- Department of Physics, University of Rostock, D-18051 Rostock, Germany
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25
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Stavale F, Shao X, Nilius N, Freund HJ, Prada S, Giordano L, Pacchioni G. Donor Characteristics of Transition-Metal-Doped Oxides: Cr-Doped MgO versus Mo-Doped CaO. J Am Chem Soc 2012; 134:11380-3. [DOI: 10.1021/ja304497n] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Fernando Stavale
- Fritz-Haber-Institut der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft,
Faradayweg 4-6, D-14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Xiang Shao
- Fritz-Haber-Institut der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft,
Faradayweg 4-6, D-14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Niklas Nilius
- Fritz-Haber-Institut der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft,
Faradayweg 4-6, D-14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Hans-Joachim Freund
- Fritz-Haber-Institut der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft,
Faradayweg 4-6, D-14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Stefano Prada
- Dipartimento di Scienza dei
Materiali, Università di Milano-Bicocca, via Cozzi 53, 20125 Milano, Italy
| | - Livia Giordano
- Dipartimento di Scienza dei
Materiali, Università di Milano-Bicocca, via Cozzi 53, 20125 Milano, Italy
| | - Gianfranco Pacchioni
- Dipartimento di Scienza dei
Materiali, Università di Milano-Bicocca, via Cozzi 53, 20125 Milano, Italy
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