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Liu P, Wu D, Hu TX, Yuan DW, Zhao G, Sheng ZM, He XT, Zhang J. Ion Kinetics and Neutron Generation Associated with Electromagnetic Turbulence in Laboratory-Scale Counterstreaming Plasmas. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2024; 132:155103. [PMID: 38682966 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.132.155103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2023] [Revised: 12/18/2023] [Accepted: 03/12/2024] [Indexed: 05/01/2024]
Abstract
Electromagnetic turbulence and ion kinetics in counterstreaming plasmas hold great significance in laboratory astrophysics, such as turbulence field amplification and particle energization. Here, we quantitatively demonstrate for the first time how electromagnetic turbulence affects ion kinetics under achievable laboratory conditions (millimeter-scale interpenetrating plasmas with initial velocity of 2000 km/s, density of 4×10^{19} cm^{-3}, and temperature of 100 eV) utilizing a recently developed high-order implicit particle-in-cell code without scaling transformation. It is found that the electromagnetic turbulence is driven by ion two-stream and filamentation instabilities. For the magnetized scenarios where an applied magnetic field of tens of Tesla is perpendicular to plasma flows, the growth rates of instabilities increase with the strengthening of applied magnetic field, which therefore leads to a significant enhancement of turbulence fields. Under the competition between the stochastic acceleration due to electromagnetic turbulence and collisional thermalization, ion distribution function shows a distinct super-Gaussian shape, and the ion kinetics are manifested in neutron yields and spectra. Our results have well explained the recent unmagnetized experimental observations, and the findings of magnetized scenario can be verified by current astrophysical experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Liu
- Institute for Fusion Theory and Simulation, School of Physics, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - D Wu
- Key Laboratory for Laser Plasmas and School of Physics and Astronomy, Collaborative Innovation Center of IFSA (CICIFSA), Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - T X Hu
- Institute for Fusion Theory and Simulation, School of Physics, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
- Key Laboratory for Laser Plasmas and School of Physics and Astronomy, Collaborative Innovation Center of IFSA (CICIFSA), Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - D W Yuan
- Key Laboratory of Optical Astronomy, National Astronomical Observatories, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100012, China
| | - G Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Optical Astronomy, National Astronomical Observatories, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100012, China
| | - Z M Sheng
- Institute for Fusion Theory and Simulation, School of Physics, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - X T He
- Institute for Fusion Theory and Simulation, School of Physics, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - J Zhang
- Key Laboratory for Laser Plasmas and School of Physics and Astronomy, Collaborative Innovation Center of IFSA (CICIFSA), Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
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2
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Zhang Q, Guo F, Daughton W, Li H, Le A, Phan T, Desai M. Multispecies Ion Acceleration in 3D Magnetic Reconnection with Hybrid-Kinetic Simulations. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2024; 132:115201. [PMID: 38563953 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.132.115201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2023] [Accepted: 01/29/2024] [Indexed: 04/04/2024]
Abstract
Magnetic reconnection drives multispecies particle acceleration broadly in space and astrophysics. We perform the first 3D hybrid simulations (fluid electrons, kinetic ions) that contain sufficient scale separation to produce nonthermal heavy-ion acceleration, with fragmented flux ropes critical for accelerating all species. We demonstrate the acceleration of all ion species (up to Fe) into power-law spectra with similar indices, by a common Fermi acceleration mechanism. The upstream ion velocities influence the first Fermi reflection for injection. The subsequent onsets of Fermi acceleration are delayed for ions with lower charge-mass ratios (Q/M), until growing flux ropes magnetize them. This leads to a species-dependent maximum energy/nucleon ∝(Q/M)^{α}. These findings are consistent with in situ observations in reconnection regions, suggesting Fermi acceleration as the dominant multispecies ion acceleration mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qile Zhang
- Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, USA
| | - Fan Guo
- Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, USA
| | - William Daughton
- Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, USA
| | - Hui Li
- Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, USA
| | - Ari Le
- Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, USA
| | - Tai Phan
- Space Sciences Laboratory, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, USA
| | - Mihir Desai
- Southwest Research Institute, 6220 Culebra Road, San Antonio, Texas 78238, USA and Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas 78249, USA
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3
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Grošelj D, Hakobyan H, Beloborodov AM, Sironi L, Philippov A. Radiative Particle-in-Cell Simulations of Turbulent Comptonization in Magnetized Black-Hole Coronae. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2024; 132:085202. [PMID: 38457737 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.132.085202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2023] [Revised: 09/30/2023] [Accepted: 01/24/2024] [Indexed: 03/10/2024]
Abstract
We report results from the first radiative particle-in-cell simulations of strong Alfvénic turbulence in plasmas of moderate optical depth. The simulations are performed in a local 3D periodic box and self-consistently follow the evolution of radiation as it interacts with a turbulent electron-positron plasma via Compton scattering. We focus on the conditions expected in magnetized coronae of accreting black holes and obtain an emission spectrum consistent with the observed hard state of Cyg X-1. Most of the turbulence power is transferred directly to the photons via bulk Comptonization, shaping the peak of the emission around 100 keV. The rest is released into nonthermal particles, which generate the MeV spectral tail. The method presented here shows promising potential for ab initio modeling of various astrophysical sources and opens a window into a new regime of kinetic plasma turbulence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Grošelj
- Centre for mathematical Plasma Astrophysics, Department of Mathematics, KU Leuven, B-3001 Leuven, Belgium
- Department of Astronomy and Columbia Astrophysics Laboratory, Columbia University, New York, New York 10027, USA
| | - Hayk Hakobyan
- Computational Sciences Department, Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory, Princeton, New Jersey 08540, USA
- Department of Physics and Columbia Astrophysics Laboratory, Columbia University, New York, New York 10027, USA
| | - Andrei M Beloborodov
- Department of Physics and Columbia Astrophysics Laboratory, Columbia University, New York, New York 10027, USA
- Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics, D-85741 Garching, Germany
| | - Lorenzo Sironi
- Department of Astronomy and Columbia Astrophysics Laboratory, Columbia University, New York, New York 10027, USA
| | - Alexander Philippov
- Department of Physics, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742, USA
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4
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Gong Z, Shen X, Hatsagortsyan KZ, Keitel CH. Electron Slingshot Acceleration in Relativistic Preturbulent Shocks Explored via Emitted Photon Polarization. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2023; 131:225101. [PMID: 38101383 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.131.225101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2023] [Revised: 09/23/2023] [Accepted: 10/23/2023] [Indexed: 12/17/2023]
Abstract
Transient electron dynamics near the interface of counterstreaming plasmas at the onset of a relativistic collisionless shock (RCS) is investigated using particle-in-cell simulations. We identify a slingshotlike injection process induced by the drifting electric field sustained by the flowing focus of backward-moving electrons, which is distinct from the well-known stochastic acceleration. The flowing focus signifies the plasma kinetic transition from a preturbulent laminar motion to a chaotic turbulence. We find a characteristic correlation between the electron dynamics in the slingshot acceleration and the photon emission features. In particular, the integrated radiation from the RCS exhibits a counterintuitive nonmonotonic dependence of the photon polarization degree on the photon energy, which originates from a polarization degradation of relatively high-energy photons emitted by the slingshot-injected electrons. Our results demonstrate the potential of photon polarization as an essential information source in exploring intricate transient dynamics in RCSs with relevance for Earth-based plasma and astrophysical scenarios.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zheng Gong
- Max-Planck-Institut für Kernphysik, Saupfercheckweg 1, 69117 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Xiaofei Shen
- Max-Planck-Institut für Kernphysik, Saupfercheckweg 1, 69117 Heidelberg, Germany
| | | | - Christoph H Keitel
- Max-Planck-Institut für Kernphysik, Saupfercheckweg 1, 69117 Heidelberg, Germany
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5
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Lemoine M. First-Principles Fermi Acceleration in Magnetized Turbulence. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2022; 129:215101. [PMID: 36461966 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.129.215101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2022] [Revised: 09/02/2022] [Accepted: 09/29/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
This Letter provides a concrete implementation of Fermi's model of particle acceleration in magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) turbulence, connecting the rate of energization to the gradients of the velocity of magnetic field lines, which it characterizes within a multifractal picture of turbulence intermittency. It then derives a transport equation in momentum space for the distribution function. This description is shown to be substantiated by a large-scale numerical simulation of strong MHD turbulence. The present general framework can be used to model particle acceleration in a variety of environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Lemoine
- Institut d'Astrophysique de Paris, CNRS-Sorbonne Université, 98 bis boulevard Arago, F-75014 Paris, France
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6
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Nättilä J, Beloborodov AM. Heating of Magnetically Dominated Plasma by Alfvén-Wave Turbulence. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2022; 128:075101. [PMID: 35244444 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.128.075101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2021] [Revised: 11/23/2021] [Accepted: 12/08/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Magnetic energy around astrophysical compact objects can strongly dominate over plasma rest mass. Emission observed from these systems may be fed by dissipation of Alfvén wave turbulence, which cascades to small damping scales, energizing the plasma. We use 3D kinetic simulations to investigate this process. When the cascade is excited naturally, by colliding large-scale Alfvén waves, we observe quasithermal heating with no nonthermal particle acceleration. We also find that the particles are energized along the magnetic field lines and so are poor producers of synchrotron radiation. At low plasma densities, our simulations show the transition to "charge-starved" cascades, with a distinct damping mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joonas Nättilä
- Physics Department and Columbia Astrophysics Laboratory, Columbia University, 538 West 120th Street, New York, New York 10027, USA
- Center for Computational Astrophysics, Flatiron Institute, 162 Fifth Avenue, New York, New York 10010, USA
| | - Andrei M Beloborodov
- Physics Department and Columbia Astrophysics Laboratory, Columbia University, 538 West 120th Street, New York, New York 10027, USA
- Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics, Karl-Schwarzschild-Strasse 1, D-85741 Garching, Germany
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7
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Howes G. Illuminating Black Holes through Turbulent Heating. PHYSICS 2022. [DOI: 10.1103/physics.15.20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
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8
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Uzdensky DA. Relativistic Nonthermal Particle Acceleration in Two-Dimensional Collisionless Magnetic Reconnection. JOURNAL OF PLASMA PHYSICS 2022; 88:905880114. [PMID: 35241860 PMCID: PMC8886498 DOI: 10.1017/s0022377822000046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Magnetic reconnection, especially in the relativistic regime, provides an efficient mechanism for accelerating relativistic particles and thus offers an attractive physical explanation for nonthermal high-energy emission from various astrophysical sources. I present a simple analytical model that elucidates key physical processes responsible for reconnection-driven relativistic nonthermal particle acceleration (NTPA) in the large-system, plasmoid-dominated regime in two dimensions. The model aims to explain the numerically-observed dependencies of the power-law index p and high-energy cutoff γc of the resulting nonthermal particle energy spectrum f(γ) on the ambient plasma magnetization σ, and (for γc ) on the system size L. In this self-similar model, energetic particles are continuously accelerated by the out-of-plane reconnection electric field E rec until they become magnetized by the reconnected magnetic field and eventually trapped in plasmoids large enough to confine them. The model also includes diffusive Fermi acceleration by particle bouncing off rapidly moving plasmoids. I argue that the balance between electric acceleration and magnetization controls the power-law index, while trapping in plasmoids governs the cutoff, thus tying the particle energy spectrum to the plasmoid distribution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dmitri A. Uzdensky
- Center for Integrated Plasma Studies, Physics Department, 390 UCB, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309, USA
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9
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Bacchini F, Pucci F, Malara F, Lapenta G. Kinetic Heating by Alfvén Waves in Magnetic Shears. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2022; 128:025101. [PMID: 35089767 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.128.025101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2021] [Revised: 10/27/2021] [Accepted: 11/30/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
With first-principles kinetic simulations, we show that a large-scale Alfvén wave (AW) propagating in an inhomogeneous background decays into kinetic Alfvén waves (KAWs), triggering ion and electron energization. We demonstrate that the two species can access unequal amounts of the initial AW energy, experiencing differential heating. During the decay process, the electric field carried by KAWs produces non-Maxwellian features in the particle velocity distribution functions, in accordance with space observations. The process we present solely requires the interaction of a large-scale AW with a magnetic shear and may be relevant for several astrophysical and laboratory plasmas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabio Bacchini
- Centre for mathematical Plasma Astrophysics, Department of Mathematics, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200B, B-3001 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Francesco Pucci
- Istituto per la Scienza e Tecnologia dei Plasmi, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (ISTP-CNR), Via Amendola 122/D, 70126 Bari, Italy and Centre for mathematical Plasma Astrophysics, Department of Mathematics, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200B, B-3001 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Francesco Malara
- Dipartimento di Fisica, Università della Calabria, 87036 Rende (CS), Italy
| | - Giovanni Lapenta
- Centre for mathematical Plasma Astrophysics, Department of Mathematics, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200B, B-3001 Leuven, Belgium
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10
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Comisso L, Sironi L. Pitch-Angle Anisotropy Controls Particle Acceleration and Cooling in Radiative Relativistic Plasma Turbulence. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2021; 127:255102. [PMID: 35029444 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.127.255102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2021] [Revised: 11/17/2021] [Accepted: 12/02/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Nature's most powerful high-energy sources are capable of accelerating particles to high energy and radiating it away on extremely short timescales, even shorter than the light crossing time of the system. It is yet unclear what physical processes can produce such an efficient acceleration, despite the copious radiative losses. By means of radiative particle-in-cell simulations, we show that magnetically dominated turbulence in pair plasmas subject to strong synchrotron cooling generates a nonthermal particle spectrum with a hard power-law range (slope p∼1) within a few eddy turnover times. Low pitch-angle particles can significantly exceed the nominal radiation-reaction limit, before abruptly cooling down. The particle spectrum becomes even harder (p<1) over time owing to particle cooling with an energy-dependent pitch-angle anisotropy. The resulting synchrotron spectrum is hard (νF_{ν}∝ν^{s} with s∼1). Our findings have important implications for understanding the nonthermal emission from high-energy astrophysical sources, most notably the prompt phase of gamma-ray bursts and gamma-ray flares from the Crab nebula.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luca Comisso
- Department of Astronomy and Columbia Astrophysics Laboratory, Columbia University, New York, New York 10027, USA
| | - Lorenzo Sironi
- Department of Astronomy and Columbia Astrophysics Laboratory, Columbia University, New York, New York 10027, USA
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11
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Zhang Q, Guo F, Daughton W, Li H, Li X. Efficient Nonthermal Ion and Electron Acceleration Enabled by the Flux-Rope Kink Instability in 3D Nonrelativistic Magnetic Reconnection. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2021; 127:185101. [PMID: 34767407 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.127.185101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2021] [Revised: 08/16/2021] [Accepted: 09/10/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The relaxation of field-line tension during magnetic reconnection gives rise to a universal Fermi acceleration process involving the curvature drift of particles. However, the efficiency of this mechanism is limited by the trapping of energetic particles within flux ropes. Using 3D fully kinetic simulations, we demonstrate that the flux-rope kink instability leads to strong field-line chaos in weak-guide-field regimes where the Fermi mechanism is most efficient, thus allowing particles to transport out of flux ropes and undergo further acceleration. As a consequence, both ions and electrons develop clear power-law energy spectra that contain a significant fraction of the released energy. The low-energy bounds are determined by the injection physics, while the high-energy cutoffs are limited only by the system size. These results have strong relevance to observations of nonthermal particle acceleration in space and astrophysics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qile Zhang
- Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, USA
| | - Fan Guo
- Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, USA
| | - William Daughton
- Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, USA
| | - Hui Li
- Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, USA
| | - Xiaocan Li
- Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire 03755, USA
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12
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Kimura SS, Murase K, Mészáros P. Soft gamma rays from low accreting supermassive black holes and connection to energetic neutrinos. Nat Commun 2021; 12:5615. [PMID: 34556641 PMCID: PMC8460780 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-25111-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2020] [Accepted: 07/19/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The Universe is filled with a diffuse background of MeV gamma-rays and PeV neutrinos, whose origins are unknown. Here, we propose a scenario that can account for both backgrounds simultaneously. Low-luminosity active galactic nuclei have hot accretion flows where thermal electrons naturally emit soft gamma rays via Comptonization of their synchrotron photons. Protons there can be accelerated via turbulence or reconnection, producing high-energy neutrinos via hadronic interactions. We demonstrate that our model can reproduce the gamma-ray and neutrino data. Combined with a contribution by hot coronae in luminous active galactic nuclei, these accretion flows can explain the keV - MeV photon and TeV - PeV neutrino backgrounds. This scenario can account for the MeV background without non-thermal electrons, suggesting a higher transition energy from the thermal to nonthermal Universe than expected. Our model is consistent with X-ray data of nearby objects, and testable by future MeV gamma-ray and high-energy neutrino detectors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shigeo S Kimura
- Frontier Research Institute for Interdisciplinary Sciences, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan.
- Astronomical Institute, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan.
| | - Kohta Murase
- Department of Physics, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
- Department of Astronomy & Astrophysics, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
- Center for Multimessenger Astrophysics, Institute for Gravitation and the Cosmos, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
- Center for Gravitational Physics, Yukawa Institute for Theoretical Physics, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Péter Mészáros
- Department of Physics, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
- Department of Astronomy & Astrophysics, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
- Center for Multimessenger Astrophysics, Institute for Gravitation and the Cosmos, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
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13
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Zhao ZH, Xie Y, Lei Z, Jiao JL, Zhou WM, Zhou CT, Zhu SP, He XT, Qiao B. Onset of inverse magnetic energy transfer in collisionless turbulent plasmas. Phys Rev E 2021; 104:025204. [PMID: 34525564 DOI: 10.1103/physreve.104.025204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2021] [Accepted: 07/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Inverse magnetic energy transfer from small to large scales is a key physical process for the origin of large-scale strong magnetic fields in the universe. However, so far, from the magnetohydrodynamic perspective, the onset of inverse transfer is still not fully understood, especially the underlying dynamics. Here, we use both two-dimensional and three-dimensional particle-in-cell simulations to show the self-consistent dynamics of inverse transfer in collisionless decaying turbulent plasmas. Using the space filtering technique in theory and numerical analyses, we identify magnetic reconnection as the onset and fundamental drive for inverse transfer, where, specifically, the subscale electromotive force driven by magnetic reconnection do work on the large-scale magnetic field, resulting in energy transfer from small to large scales. The mechanism is also verified by the strong correlations in locations and characteristic scales between inverse transfer and magnetic reconnection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Z H Zhao
- Center for Applied Physics and Technology, HEDPS, and SKLNPT, School of Physics, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Y Xie
- Center for Applied Physics and Technology, HEDPS, and SKLNPT, School of Physics, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Z Lei
- Center for Applied Physics and Technology, HEDPS, and SKLNPT, School of Physics, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - J L Jiao
- Center for Applied Physics and Technology, HEDPS, and SKLNPT, School of Physics, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - W M Zhou
- Science and Technology on Plasma Physics Laboratory, Research Center of Laser Fusion, China Academy of Engineering Physics, Mianyang 621900, China
| | - C T Zhou
- Center for Advanced Material Diagnostic Technology, Shenzhen Technology University, Shenzhen 518118, China
| | - S P Zhu
- Institute of Applied Physics and Computational Mathematics, Beijing 100094, China
| | - X T He
- Center for Applied Physics and Technology, HEDPS, and SKLNPT, School of Physics, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China.,Institute of Applied Physics and Computational Mathematics, Beijing 100094, China
| | - B Qiao
- Center for Applied Physics and Technology, HEDPS, and SKLNPT, School of Physics, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
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