Expression of the soybean (Glycine max) glutamate 1-semialdehyde aminotransferase gene in symbiotic root nodules

Optimizing the production and efficacy of antimicrobial bioactive compounds from Streptomyces kanamyceticus in combating multi-drug-resistant pathogens

Background

The rise of antibiotic-resistant pathogens has intensified the search for novel antimicrobial agents. This study aimed to isolate Streptomyces kanamyceticus from local soil samples and evaluate its antimicrobial properties, along with optimizing the production of bioactive compounds.

Methods

Soil samples were collected from local regions, processed, and analysed for Streptomyces strains isolation using morphological characteristics and molecular identification through 16S rRNA gene PCR assay. Antimicrobial activity was assessed against Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, and Candida albicans using the double-layer method, while Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) values were determined. The extracted compounds underwent Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis for functional group identification. Optimization of bioactive compound production was performed using a Central Composite Design (CCD) coupled with Partial Least Squares Regression (PLSR).

Results

A total of 25 distinct Streptomyces strains were isolated, with seven confirmed as S. kanamyceticus. These strains exhibited antimicrobial activity, with inhibition zones reaching 30 mm and MIC values between 20 and 70 µg/mL. The extraction yielded 150-200 mL of bioactive compounds. Optimization studies revealed that a medium containing 10 g/L glucose and 10 g/L glycine max meal maximized antibiotic production.

Conclusion

This study confirmed that S. kanamyceticus is a promising source of novel antibiotics. The combination of microbial isolation, antimicrobial testing, and statistical optimization successfully enhanced the production of bioactive compounds, contributing to the search for effective antimicrobial agents against resistant pathogens.

Seedling growth and photosynthetic response of Pterocarpus indicus L. to shading stress

In tropical forests, the shade provided by tree canopies and extreme climate causes inhibition of plant seedling growth due to the lack of light. However, the plants can acclimate to such environmental stress by generating specific responses. The present study aimed to investigate the effects of shading conditions on ecophysiological performance of Narra seedlings (Pterocarpus indicus L.) via a mesocosm experiment. A pot experiment was conducted for 20 weeks in a greenhouse with different shading treatments, 75% (control), 25%, and 4% of full sunlight (FS). As a result, the photosynthetic rate (PN), Rubisco enzyme activity, maximum carboxylation rate (VCmax), and maximum electron transport rate (Jmax) in 25% FS treatment were higher or similar to those in control after three weeks of the beginning of shade treatment, whereas the highest values after ten weeks were observed in control. In contrast, the photosynthetic pigments were highest in control after three weeks, while the values were highest in 25% FS treatment after ten weeks. The growth parameters, such as biomass and leaf area, were highest in 75% FS treatment. The expression of Rubisco, phosphoglycerate kinase, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, and fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase were up-regulated in 4% FS treatment compared to control after ten weeks, contributing to tolerating the shade stress. Our findings indicated the capacity of P. indicus seedlings to tolerate and acclimate low light conditions causing shade stress by generating specific physiological and morphological responses, especially Rubisco enzyme activity as well as gene expression related to photosynthetic activity. The present study will improve our understanding of the tolerance mechanism of Narra plant under light-deficient conditions, thereby providing a better strategy for efficiently growing seedlings of this species in tropical rainforests.

A Single Nucleotide Substitution of GSAM Gene Causes Massive Accumulation of Glutamate 1-Semialdehyde and Yellow Leaf Phenotype in Rice

BACKGROUND

Tetrapyrroles play indispensable roles in various biological processes. In higher plants, glutamate 1-semialdehyde 2,1-aminomutase (GSAM) converts glutamate 1-semialdehyde (GSA) to 5-aminolevulinic acid (ALA), which is the rate-limiting step of tetrapyrrole biosynthesis. Up to now, GSAM genes have been successively identified from many species. Besides, it was found that GSAM could form a dimeric protein with itself by x-ray crystallography. However, no mutant of GSAM has been identified in monocotyledonous plants, and no experiment on interaction of GSAM protein with itself has been reported so far.

RESULT

We isolated a yellow leaf mutant, ys53, in rice (Oryza sativa). The mutant showed decreased photosynthetic pigment contents, suppressed chloroplast development, and reduced photosynthetic capacity. In consequence, its major agronomic traits were significantly affected. Map-based cloning revealed that the candidate gene was LOC_Os08g41990 encoding GSAM protein. In ys53 mutant, a single nucleotide substitution in this gene caused an amino acid change in the encoded protein, so its ALA-synthesis ability was significantly reduced and GSA was massively accumulated. Complementation assays suggested the mutant phenotype of ys53 could be rescued by introducing wild-type OsGSAM gene, confirming that the point mutation in OsGSAM is the cause of the mutant phenotype. OsGSAM is mainly expressed in green tissues, and its encoded protein is localized to chloroplast. qRT-PCR analysis indicated that the mutation of OsGSAM not only affected the expressions of tetrapyrrole biosynthetic genes, but also influenced those of photosynthetic genes in rice. In addition, the yeast two-hybrid experiment showed that OsGSAM protein could interact with itself, which could largely depend on the two specific regions containing the 81th-160th and the 321th-400th amino acid residues at its N- and C-terminals, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

We successfully characterized rice GSAM gene by a yellow leaf mutant and map-based cloning approach. Meanwhile, we verified that OsGSAM protein could interact with itself mainly by means of the two specific regions of amino acid residues at its N- and C-terminals, respectively.

Transcriptome profiles of sunflower reveal the potential role of microsatellites in gene expression divergence

The mechanisms by which natural populations generate adaptive genetic variation are not well understood. Some studies propose that microsatellites can function as drivers of adaptive variation. Here, we tested a potentially adaptive role for transcribed microsatellites with natural populations of the common sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) by assessing the enrichment of microsatellites in genes that show expression divergence across latitudes. Seeds collected from six populations at two distinct latitudes in Kansas and Oklahoma were planted and grown in a common garden. Morphological measurements from the common garden demonstrated that phenotypic variation among populations is largely explained by underlying genetic variation. An RNA-Seq experiment was conducted with 96 of the individuals grown in the common garden and differentially expressed (DE) transcripts between the two latitudes were identified. A total number of 825 DE transcripts were identified. DE transcripts and nondifferentially expressed (NDE) transcripts were then scanned for microsatellites. The abundance of different motif lengths and types in both groups were estimated. Our results indicate that DE transcripts are significantly enriched with mononucleotide repeats and significantly depauperate in trinucleotide repeats. Further, the standardized mononucleotide repeat motif A and dinucleotide repeat motif AG were significantly enriched within DE transcripts while motif types, C, AT, ACC and AAC in DE transcripts, are significantly differentiated in microsatellite tract length between the two latitudes. The tract length differentiation at specific microsatellite motif types across latitudes and their enrichment within DE transcripts indicate a potential functional role for transcribed microsatellites in gene expression divergence in sunflower.

A polymorphic (GA/CT)n- SSR influences promoter activity of Tryptophan decarboxylase gene in Catharanthus roseus L. Don

Simple Sequence Repeats (SSRs) of polypurine-polypyrimidine type motifs occur very frequently in the 5' flanks of genes in plants and have recently been implicated to have a role in regulation of gene expression. In this study, 2 accessions of Catharanthus roseus having (CT)8 and (CT)21 varying motifs in the 5'UTR of Tryptophan decarboxylase (Tdc) gene, were investigated for its role in regulation of gene expression. Extensive Tdc gene expression analysis in the 2 accessions was carried out both at the level of transcription and translation. Transcript abundance was estimated using Northern analysis and qRT-PCR, whereas the rate of Tdc gene transcription was assessed using in-situ nuclear run-on transcription assay. Translation status of Tdc gene was monitored by quantification of polysome associated Tdc mRNA using qRT-PCR. These observations were validated through transient expression analysis using the fusion construct [CaM35S:(CT)8-21:GUS]. Our study demonstrated that not only does the length of (CT)n -SSRs influences the promoter activity, but the presence of SSRs per se in the 5'-UTR significantly enhances the level of gene expression. We termed this phenomenon as "microsatellite mediated enhancement" (MME) of gene expression. Results presented here will provide leads for engineering plants with enhanced amounts of medicinally important alkaloids.

Phototropin involvement in the expression of genes encoding chlorophyll and carotenoid biosynthesis enzymes and LHC apoproteins in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii

Phototropin (PHOT) is a photoreceptor involved in a variety of blue-light-elicited physiological processes including phototropism, chloroplast movement and stomatal opening in plants. The work presented here tests whether PHOT is involved in expression of light-regulated genes in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. When C. reinhardtii was transferred from the dark to very low-fluence rate white light, there was a substantial increase in the level of transcripts encoding glutamate-1-semialdehyde aminotransferase (GSAT), phytoene desaturase (PDS) and light-harvesting polypeptides (e.g. LHCBM6). Increased levels of these transcripts were also elicited by low-intensity blue light, and this blue-light stimulation was suppressed in three different RNAi strains that synthesize low levels of PHOT. The levels of GSAT and LHCBM6 transcripts also increased following exposure of algal cells to low-intensity red light (RL). The red-light-dependent increase in transcript abundance was not affected by the electron transport inhibitor 3-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)-1,1-dimethylurea, implying that the influence of RL on transcript accumulation was not controlled by cytoplasmic redox conditions, and that a red-light photoreceptor(s) may be involved in regulating the levels of transcripts from specific photosynthesis-related genes in C. reinhardtii. Interestingly, elevated GSAT and LHCBM6 transcript levels in RL were significantly reduced in the PHOT RNAi strains, which raises the possibility of co-action between blue and RL signaling pathways. Microarray experiments indicated that the levels of several transcripts for photosystem (PS) I and II polypeptides were also modulated by PHOT. These data suggest that, in C. reinhardtii, (i) PHOT is involved in blue-light-mediated changes in transcript accumulation, (ii) synchronization of the synthesis of chlorophylls (Chl), carotenoids, Chl-binding proteins and other components of the photosynthetic apparatus is achieved, at least in part, through PHOT-mediated signaling, and (iii) a red-light photoreceptor can also influence levels of certain transcripts associated with photosynthetic function, although its action requires normal levels of PHOT.

Expression of a Brassic napus glutamate 1-semialdehyde aminotransferase in Escherichia coli and characterization of the recombinant protein

Glutamate 1-semialdehyde aminotransferase (GSA-AT) is a key regulatory enzyme, which converts glutamate 1-semialdehyde (GSA) to 5-aminolevulinic acid (ALA) in chlorophyll biosynthesis. ALA is the universal precursor for the synthesis of chlorophyll, heme, and other tetrapyrroles. To study the regulation of chlorophyll biosynthesis in Brassica napus, two cDNA clones of GSA-AT were isolated for genetic manipulation. A SalI-XbaI fragment from one of the two cDNA clones of GSA-AT was used for recombinant protein expression by inserting it at the 3' end of a calmodulin-binding-peptide (CBP) tag of the pCaln vector. The CBP tagged recombinant protein, expressed in Escherichia coli, was purified to apparent homogeneity in a one step purification process using a calmodulin affinity column. The purified CBP tagged GSA-AT is biologically active and has a specific activity of 16.6 nmol/min/mg. Cleavage of the CBP tag from the recombinant protein with thrombin resulted in 9.2% loss of specific activity. However, removal of the cleaved CBP tag from the recombinant protein solution resulted in 60% loss of specific activity, suggesting possible interactions between the recombinant protein and the CBP tag. The enzyme activity of the CBP tagless recombinant protein, referred as TR-GSA-AT hereafter, was not affected by the addition of pyridoxamine 5' phosphate (PMP). Addition of glutamate and pyridoxal 5' phosphate (PLP) to the TR-GSA-AT enhanced the enzyme activity by 3-fold and 3.6-fold, respectively. Addition of both glutamate and PLP increased the enzyme activity by 4.6-fold. Similar to the GSA-AT of B. napus, the active TR-GSA-AT is a dimeric protein of 88 kDa with 45.5 kDa subunits. As the SalI-XbaI fragment encodes a biologically active GSA-AT that has the same molecular mass as the native GSA-AT, it is concluded that the SalI-XbaI fragment is the coding sequence of GSA-AT. The highly active polyclonal antibodies generated from TR-GSA-AT were used for the detection of GSA-AT of B. napus.

Light-signalling pathways leading to the co-ordinated expression of HEMA1 and Lhcb during chloroplast development in Arabidopsis thaliana

During de-etiolation, the co-ordinated synthesis of chlorophyll and the chlorophyll a/b-binding proteins is critical to the development of functional light-harvesting complexes. To understand how this co-ordination is achieved, we have made a detailed study of the light-regulated signalling pathways mediating the expression of the HEMA1 and Lhcb genes encoding glutamyl-tRNA reductase, the first committed enzyme of 5-aminolaevulinic acid formation, and chlorophyll a/b-binding proteins, respectively. To do this, we have screened 7 photoreceptor and 12 light-signalling mutants of Arabidopsis thaliana L. for induction of HEMA1 and Lhcb expression in continuous red, far-red and blue light and following a red pulse. We have categorised these mutants into two groups. The phyA, phyB, phyAphyB, cry1, cry2, cop1, det1, poc1, eid1, and far1 mutations lead to diverse effects on the light regulation of HEMA1, but affect Lhcb expression to a similar degree. The hy1, hy2, hy5, fin219, fhy1, fhy3, spa1, ndpk2, and pat1 mutants also affect light regulation of both HEMA1 and Lhcb expression, but with differences in the relative magnitude of the two responses. The fhy1 and fhy3 mutants show the most significant differences in light regulation between the two genes, with both showing a strong inhibition of HEMA1 expression under continuous red light. These results demonstrate that co-ordinated regulation of HEMA1 and Lhcb is largely achieved through parallel light regulation mediated by shared phytochrome- and cryptochrome-signalling pathways. However, glutamyl-tRNA reductase is also required for the synthesis of other tetrapyrroles and this dual role may account for the observed differences in these light-signalling pathways.

Identification of a soybean protein that interacts with GAGA element dinucleotide repeat DNA

Dinucleotide repeat DNA with the pattern (GA)(n)/(TC)(n), so-called GAGA elements, control gene expression in animals, and are recognized by a specific regulatory protein. Here, a yeast one-hybrid screen was used to isolate soybean (Glycine max) cDNA encoding a GAGA-binding protein (GBP) that binds to (GA)(n)/(CT)(n) DNA. Soybean GBP was dissimilar from the GAGA factor of Drosophila melanogaster. Recombinant GBP protein did not bind to dinucleotide repeat sequences other than (GA)(n)/(CT)(n). GBP bound to the promoter of the heme and chlorophyll synthesis gene Gsa1, which contains a GAGA element. Removal of that GAGA element abrogated binding of GBP to the promoter. Furthermore, insertion of the GAGA element to a nonspecific DNA conferred GBP-binding activity on that DNA. Thus, the GAGA element of the Gsa1 promoter is both necessary and sufficient for GBP binding. Gbp mRNA was expressed in leaves and was induced in symbiotic root nodules elicited by the bacterium Bradyrhizobium japonicum. In addition, Gbp transcripts were much higher in leaves of dark-treated etiolated plantlets than in those exposed to light for 24 h. Homologs of GBP were found in other dicots and in the monocot rice (Oryza sativa), as well. We suggest that interaction between GAGA elements and GBP-like proteins is a regulatory feature in plants.

Novel aspects of symbiotic nitrogen fixation uncovered by transcript profiling with cDNA arrays

An array of 2,304 cDNA clones derived from nitrogen-fixing nodules of Lotus japonicus was produced and used to detect differences in relative gene transcript abundance between nodules and uninfected roots. Transcripts of 83 different genes were found to be more abundant in nodules than in roots. More than 50 of these have never before been identified as nodule-induced in any species. Expression of 36 genes was detected in nodules but not in roots. Several known nodulin genes were included among the nodule-induced genes. Also included were genes involved in sucrose breakdown and glycolysis, CO2 recycling, and amino acid synthesis, processes that are known to be accelerated in nodules compared with roots. Genes involved in membrane transport, hormone metabolism, cell wall and protein synthesis, and signal transduction and regulation of transcription were also induced in nodules. Genes that may subvert normal plant defense responses, including two encoding enzymes involved in detoxification of active oxygen species and one that may prohibit phytoalexin synthesis, were also identified. The data represent a rich source of information for hypothesis building and future exploration of symbiotic nitrogen fixation.

Expression of a soybean gene encoding the tetrapyrrole-synthesis enzyme glutamyl-tRNA reductase in symbiotic root nodules

Heme and chlorophyll accumulate to high levels in legume root nodules and in photosynthetic tissues, respectively, and they are both derived from the universal tetrapyrrole precursor delta-aminolevulinic acid (ALA). The first committed step in ALA and tetrapyrrole synthesis is catalyzed by glutamyl-tRNA reductase (GTR) in plants. A soybean (Glycine max) root-nodule cDNA encoding GTR was isolated by complementation of an Escherichia coli GTR-defective mutant for restoration of ALA prototrophy. Gtr mRNA was very low in uninfected roots but accumulated to high levels in root nodules. The induction of Gtr mRNA in developing nodules was subsequent to that of the gene Enod2 (early nodule) and coincided with leghemoglobin mRNA accumulation. Genomic analysis revealed two Gtr genes, Gtr1 and a 3' portion of Gtr2, which were isolated from the soybean genome. RNase-protection analysis using probes specific to Gtr1 and Gtr2 showed that both genes were expressed, but Gtr1 mRNA accumulated to significantly higher levels. In addition, the qualitative patterns of expression of Gtr1 and Gtr2 were similar to each other and to total Gtr mRNA in leaves and nodules of mature plants and etiolated plantlets. The data indicate that Gtr1 is universal for tetrapyrrole synthesis and that a Gtr gene specific for a tissue or tetrapyrrole is unlikely. We suggest that ALA synthesis in specialized root nodules involves an altered spatial expression of genes that are otherwise induced strongly only in photosynthetic tissues of uninfected plants.

Protein changes in response to progressive water deficit in maize . Quantitative variation and polypeptide identification

Three-week-old plants of two unrelated lines of maize (Zea mays L.) and their hybrid were submitted to progressive water stress for 10 d. Changes induced in leaf proteins were studied by two-dimensional electrophoresis and quantitatively analyzed using image analysis. Seventy-eight proteins out of a total of 413 showed a significant quantitative variation (increase or decrease), with 38 of them exhibiting a different expression in the two genotypes. Eleven proteins that increased by a factor of 1.3 to 5 in stressed plants and 8 proteins detected only in stressed plants were selected for internal amino acid microsequencing, and by similarity search 16 were found to be closely related to previously reported proteins. In addition to proteins already known to be involved in the response to water stress (e.g. RAB17 [Responsive to ABA]), several enzymes involved in basic metabolic cellular pathways such as glycolysis and the Krebs cycle (e.g. enolase and triose phosphate isomerase) were identified, as well as several others, including caffeate O-methyltransferase, the induction of which could be related to lignification.

Evidence that the plant host synthesizes the heme moiety of leghemoglobin in root nodules

Although it is well established that the plant host encodes and synthesizes the apoprotein for leghemoglobin in root nodules, the source of the heme moiety has been uncertain. We recently found that the transcript for coproporphyrinogen III oxidase, one of the later enzymes of heme synthesis, is highly elevated in soybean (Glycine max L.) nodules compared with roots. In this study we measured enzyme activity and carried out western-blot analysis and in situ hybridization of mRNA to investigate the levels during nodulation of the plant-specific coproporphyrinogen oxidase and four other enzymes of the pathway in both soybean and pea (Pisum sativum L.). We compared them with the activity found in leaves and uninfected roots. Our results demonstrate that all of these enzymes are elevated in the infected cells of nodules. Because these are the same cells that express apoleghemoglobin, the data strongly support a role for the plant in the synthesis of the heme moiety of leghemoglobin.

Transcriptional regulation of delta-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase synthesis by oxygen in Bradyrhizobium japonicum and evidence for developmental control of the hemB gene

An increased demand for cytochromes is associated with symbiotic development and microaerobic metabolism in the bacterium Bradyrhizobium japonicum, and evidence suggests that hemB, rather than hemA, is the first essential bacterial heme synthesis gene in symbiosis with soybean. Steady-state levels of mRNA and protein encoded by hemB were strongly and rapidly induced by O2 deprivation as determined by RNase protection and immunoblot analyses, but hemH message was not induced. Oxygen limitation resulted in a greater-than-10-fold increase in the rate of hemB mRNA synthesis as determined by transcriptional runoff experiments, whereas hemH transcription was unaffected by the O2 status. Thus, hemB is a regulated gene in B. japonicum and is transcriptionally controlled by O2. Unlike the expression in parent strain I110, hemB expression was not affected by O2 in the fixJ strain 7360, and O2-limited cultures of the mutant contained quantities of hemB mRNA and protein that were comparable to uninduced levels found in aerobic cells. In addition, spectroscopic analysis of cell extracts showed that increases in b- and c-type cytochromes and the disappearance of cytochrome aa3 in response to microaerobic growth in wild-type cells were not observed in the fixJ mutant. FixJ is a key transcriptional regulator that mediates O2-dependent differentiation in rhizobia, and therefore hemB expression is under developmental control. Furthermore, the data suggest a global control of cytochrome expression and heme biosynthesis in response to the cellular O2 status.

The regulation of enzymes involved in chlorophyll biosynthesis

All living organisms contain tetrapyrroles. In plants, chlorophyll (chlorophyll a plus chlorophyll b) is the most abundant and probably most important tetrapyrrole. It is involved in light absorption and energy transduction during photosynthesis. Chlorophyll is synthesized from the intact carbon skeleton of glutamate via the C5 pathway. This pathway takes place in the chloroplast. It is the aim of this review to summarize the current knowledge on the biochemistry and molecular biology of the C5-pathway enzymes, their regulated expression in response to light, and the impact of chlorophyll biosynthesis on chloroplast development. Particular emphasis will be placed on the key regulatory steps of chlorophyll biosynthesis in higher plants, such as 5-aminolevulinic acid formation, the production of Mg(2+)-protoporphyrin IX, and light-dependent protochlorophyllide reduction.

A mutant Bradyrhizobium japonicum delta-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase with an altered metal requirement functions in situ for tetrapyrrole synthesis in soybean root nodules

The tetrapyrrole synthesis enzyme delta-aminolevulinic acid (ALA) dehydratase requires Mg2+ for catalytic activity in photosynthetic organisms and in Bradyrhizobium japonicum, a bacterium that can reside symbiotically within plant cells of soybean root nodules or as a free-living organism. ALA dehydratase from animals and other non-photosynthetic organisms is a Zn(2+)-dependent enzyme. A modified B. japonicum ALA dehydratase, ALAD*, was constructed by site-directed mutagenesis of hemB in which three proximal amino acids conserved in plant dehydratases were changed to cysteine residues as is found in the Zn(2+)-dependent enzyme of animals. These substitutions resulted in an enzyme that required Zn2+ rather than Mg2+ for catalytic activity, and therefore a region of the ALA dehydratase from B. japonicum, and probably from plants, was identified that is involved in Mg2+ dependence. In addition, the data show that a change in only a few residues is sufficient to change a Mg(2+)-dependent ALA dehydratase to a Zn(2+)-dependent one. B. japonicum strains were constructed that contained a single copy of either hemB or the altered gene hemB* integrated into the genome of a hemB- mutant. Cultures of the hemB* strain KPZn3 had Zn(2+)-dependent ALA dehydratase activity that functioned in vivo as discerned by its heme prototrophy and expression of wild type levels of cellular hemes. Strain KPZn3 elicited root nodules on soybean that contained viable bacteria and exhibited traits of normally developed nodules, and the symbiotic bacteria expressed nearly wild type levels of cellular hemes. We conclude that the Zn(2+)-dependent ALAD* can function and support bacterial tetrapyrrole synthesis within the plant milieu of root nodules.

The Rhizobial hemA Gene Is Required for Symbiosis in Species with Deficient [delta]-Aminolevulinic Acid Uptake Activity

Most rhizobial hemA mutants induce root nodules on their respective legume hosts that lack nitrogen fixation activity and leghemoglobin expression. However, a Bradyrhizobium japonicum hemA mutant elicits effective nodules on soybean, and we proposed previously that synthesis and uptake of the heme precursor [delta]-aminolevulinic acid (ALA) by the plant and bacterial symbiont, respectively, allow mutant rescue (I. Sangwan, M.R. O'Brian [1991] Science 251: 1220-1222). In the present work, the B. japonicum hemA mutant MLG1 elicited normal nodules on three hosts, including cowpea, a plant that is not effectively nodulated by a hemA mutant of Rhizobium sp. These data indicate that B. japonicum rather than soybean possesses the unique trait that allows normal nodule development by a hemA mutant. Cowpea expressed glutamate-dependent ALA formation activity in nodules induced by B. japonicum strains I110 or MLG1 and by Rhizobium sp. ANU240. Exogenous ALA was taken up by B. japonicum bacteroids isolated from soybean or cowpea nodules, and the kinetics of uptake were biphasic. By comparison, Rhizobium sp. ANU240 had very low ALA uptake activity. In addition, ALA uptake was observed in cultured cells of B. japonicum but not in cultured cells of three other rhizobial species tested. We suggest that the differential success of legume-rhizobial hemA symbioses is due to an ALA uptake activity in B. japonicum that is deficient in other rhizobia, thereby further validating the ALA rescue hypothesis.

The common origins of the pigments of life-early steps of chlorophyll biosynthesis

The complex pathway of tetrapyrrole biosynthesis can be dissected into five sections: the pathways that produce 5-aminolevulinate (the C-4 and the C-5 pathways), the steps that transform ALA to uroporphyrinogen III, which are ubiquitous in the biosynthesis of all tetrapyrroles, and the three branches producing specialized end products. These end products include corrins and siroheme, chlorophylls and hemes and linear tetrapyrroles. These branches have been subjects of recent reviews. This review concentrates on the early steps leading up to uroporphyrinogen III formation which have been investigated intensively in recent years in animals, in plants, and in a wide range of bacteria.

gsa1 is a universal tetrapyrrole synthesis gene in soybean and is regulated by a GAGA element

Expression of plant tetrapyrroles is high in photosynthetic tissues and in legume root nodules in the form of chlorophyll and heme, respectively. The universal tetrapyrrole precursor delta-aminolevulinic acid (ALA) is synthesized from glutamate 1-semialdehyde (GSA) by GSA aminotransferase in plants, which is encoded by gsa. Immunoblot analysis showed that GSA aminotransferase was expressed in soybean leaves and nodules, but not in roots, and that protein correlated with enzyme activity. These observations indicate that GSA aminotransferase expression is controlled in tetrapyrrole formation and argue against significant activity of an enzyme other than the well described aminotransferase for GSA-dependent ALA formation. gas mRNA and protein were induced in soybean nodules, and their activation was temporally intermediate between those of the respective early and late genes endo2 and lb. A GSA aminotransferase gene, designated gsa1, was isolated and appears to be one of two gsa genes in the soybean genome. gsa1 mRNA accumulated to high levels in leaves and nodules, but not in uninfected roots as discerned with a gsa1-specific probe. Message levels were higher in leaves from etiolated plantlets than in mature plants, and expression in the former was slightly elevated by light. The expression pattern of gsa1 mRNA was qualitatively similar to that of total gsa. The data strongly suggest that gsa1 is a universal tetrapyrrole synthesis gene and that a gsa gene specific for a tissue, tetrapyrrole, or light condition is unlikely. The gsa1 promoter contained a genetic element found in numerous Drosophila melanogaster genes; the so-called GAGA element displayed single-stranded character in vitro and formed a complex with nuclear factors from nodules and leaves but not from roots. From these observations we infer that the GAGA element is involved in the transcriptional control of gsa1.

Plant delta-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase. Expression in soybean root nodules and evidence for a bacterial lineage of the Alad gene

We isolated a soybean (Glycine max) cDNA encoding the heme and chlorophyll synthesis enzyme delta-aminolevulinic acid (ALA) dehydratase by functional complementation of an Escherichia coli hemB mutant, and we designated the gene Alad. ALA dehydratase was strongly expressed in nodules but not in uninfected roots, although Alad mRNA was only 2- to 3-fold greater in the symbiotic tissue. Light was not essential for expression of Alad in leaves of dark-grown etiolated plantlets as discerned by mRNA, protein, and enzyme activity levels; hence, its expression in subterranean nodules was not unique in that regard. The data show that soybean can metabolize the ALA it synthesizes in nodules, which argues in favor of tetrapyrrole formation by the plant host in that organ. Molecular phylogenetic analysis of ALA dehydratases from 11 organisms indicated that plant and bacterial enzymes have a common lineage not shared by animals and yeast. We suggest that plant ALA dehydratase is descended from the bacterial endosymbiont ancestor of chloroplasts and that the Alad gene was transferred to the nucleus during plant evolution.

A visible marker for antisense mRNA expression in plants: inhibition of chlorophyll synthesis with a glutamate-1-semialdehyde aminotransferase antisense gene

Glutamate 1-semialdehyde aminotransferase [(S)-4-amino-5-oxopentanoate 4,5-aminomutase, EC 5.4.3.8] catalyzes the last step in the conversion of glutamate to delta-aminolevulinate of which eight molecules are needed to synthesize a chlorophyll molecule. Two full-length cDNA clones that probably represent the homeologous Gsa genes of the two tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) genomes have been isolated. The deduced amino acid sequences of the 468-residue-long precursor polypeptides differ by 10 amino acids. The cDNA sequence of isoenzyme 2 was inserted in reverse orientation under the control of a cauliflower mosaic virus 35S promoter derivative in an expression vector and was introduced by Agrobacterium-mediated transformation into tobacco plants. Antisense gene expression decreased the steady-state mRNA level of glutamate 1-semialdehyde aminotransferase, the translation of the enzyme, and chlorophyll synthesis. Remarkably, partial or complete suppression of the aminotransferase mimics in tobacco a wide variety of chlorophyll variegation patterns caused by nuclear or organelle gene mutations in different higher plants. The antisense gene is inherited as a dominant marker.

Light regulation of chlorophyll biosynthesis at the level of 5-aminolevulinate formation in Arabidopsis

5-Aminolevulinic acid (ALA) is the universal precursor of tetrapyrroles, such as chlorophyll and heme. The major control of chlorophyll biosynthesis is at the step of ALA formation. In the chloroplasts of plants, as in Escherichia coli, ALA is derived from the glutamate of Glu-tRNA via the two-step C5 pathway. The first enzyme, Glu-tRNA reductase, catalyzes the reduction of Glu-tRNA to glutamate 1-semialdehyde with the release of intact tRNA. The second enzyme, glutamate 1-semialdehyde 2,1-aminomutase, converts glutamate 1-semialdehyde to ALA. To further examine ALA formation in plants, we isolated Arabidopsis genes that encode the enzymes of the C5 pathway via functional complementation of mutations in the corresponding genes of E. coli. The Glu-tRNA reductase gene was designated HEMA and the glutamate 1-semialdehyde 2,1-aminomutase gene, GSA1. Each gene contains two short introns (149 and 241 nucleotides for HEMA, 153 and 86 nucleotides for GSA1). The deduced amino acid sequence of the HEMA protein predicts a protein of 60 kD with substantial similarity (30 to 47% identity) to sequences derived from the known hemA genes from microorganisms that make ALA by the C5 pathway. Purified Arabidopsis HEMA protein has Glu-tRNA reductase activity. The GSA1 gene encodes a 50-kD protein whose deduced amino acid sequence shows extensive homology (55 to 78% identity) with glutamate 1-semialdehyde 2,1-aminomutase proteins from other species. RNA gel blot analyses indicated that transcripts for both genes are found in root, leaf, stem, and flower tissues and that their levels are dramatically elevated by light. Thus, light may regulate ALA, and hence chlorophyll formation, by exerting coordinated transcriptional control over both enzymes of the C5 pathway.

Structure and light-regulated expression of the gsa gene encoding the chlorophyll biosynthetic enzyme, glutamate 1-semialdehyde aminotransferase, in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii

The gsa gene, which encodes glutamate 1-semialdehyde (GSA) aminotransferase (GSAT), an enzyme in the chlorophyll and heme biosynthetic pathway, has been cloned from Chlamydomonas reinhardtii by complementation of an Escherichia coli hemL mutant. The deduced C. reinhardtii GSAT amino acid sequence has a high degree of similarity to GSAT sequences from barley, tobacco, soybean and various prokaryotic sources. In vitro enzyme activity assays from E. coli transformed with the C. reinhardtii GSAT cDNA showed that higher levels of GSAT activity are associated with the expression of the cDNA insert. Analysis of changes in mRNA levels in light:dark synchronized C. reinhardtii cultures was done by northern blotting. The level of GSAT mRNA nearly doubled during the first 0.5 h in the light and increased over 26-fold after 2 h in the light. This increase is comparable to previously reported increases in GSAT activity in dark-grown cultures transferred to the light, and is the first report of induction by light of a gene encoding an ALA biosynthetic enzyme in plant or algal cells. The accumulation of GSAT mRNA follows the pattern of chlorophyll accumulation and the pattern of chlorophyll a/b-binding protein (cabII-1) mRNA accumulation in these cells, suggesting that the two genes may be regulated by light through a common mechanism. Additional evidence that the GSAT mRNA may be transcriptionally regulated by light is found in the genomic sequence of the gsa gene.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Bradyrhizobium japonicum delta-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase is essential for symbiosis with soybean and contains a novel metal-binding domain

The Bradyrhizobium japonicum hemA gene product delta-aminolevulinic acid (ALA) synthase is not required for symbiosis of that bacterium with soybean. Hence, the essentiality of the subsequent heme synthesis enzyme, ALA dehydratase, was examined. The B. japonicum ALA dehydratase gene, termed hemB, was isolated and identified on the basis of its ability to confer hemin prototrophy and enzyme activity on an Escherichia coli hemB mutant, and it encoded a protein that was highly homologous to ALA dehydratases from diverse organisms. A novel metal-binding domain in the B. japonicum ALA dehydratase was identified that is a structural composite of the Mg(2+)-binding domain found in plant ALA dehydratases and the Zn(2+)-binding region of nonplant ALA dehydratases. Enzyme activity in dialyzed extracts of cells that overexpressed the hemB gene was reconstituted by the addition of Mg2+ but not by addition of Zn2+, indicating that the B. japonicum ALA dehydratase is similar to the plant enzymes with respect to its metal requirement. Unlike the B. japonicum hemA mutant, the hemB mutant strain KP32 elicited undeveloped nodules on soybean, indicated by the lack of nitrogen fixation activity and plant hemoglobin. We conclude that the hemB gene is required for nodule development and propose that B. japonicum ALA dehydratase is the first essential bacterial enzyme for B. japonicum heme synthesis in soybean root nodules. In addition, we postulate that ALA is the only heme intermediate that can be translocated from the plant to the endosymbiont to support bacterial heme synthesis in nodules.