1
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Zhou Y, Gao YH, Zhang BC, Yang HL, Tian YB, Huang YH, Yin CC, Tao JJ, Wei W, Zhang WK, Chen SY, Zhou YH, Zhang JS. CELLULOSE SYNTHASE-LIKE C proteins modulate cell wall establishment during ethylene-mediated root growth inhibition in rice. THE PLANT CELL 2024; 36:3751-3769. [PMID: 38943676 PMCID: PMC11371184 DOI: 10.1093/plcell/koae195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2024] [Revised: 05/29/2024] [Accepted: 06/07/2024] [Indexed: 07/01/2024]
Abstract
The cell wall shapes plant cell morphogenesis and affects the plasticity of organ growth. However, the way in which cell wall establishment is regulated by ethylene remains largely elusive. Here, by analyzing cell wall patterns, cell wall composition and gene expression in rice (Oryza sativa, L.) roots, we found that ethylene induces cell wall thickening and the expression of cell wall synthesis-related genes, including CELLULOSE SYNTHASE-LIKE C1, 2, 7, 9, 10 (OsCSLC1, 2, 7, 9, 10) and CELLULOSE SYNTHASE A3, 4, 7, 9 (OsCESA3, 4, 7, 9). Overexpression and mutant analyses revealed that OsCSLC2 and its homologs function in ethylene-mediated induction of xyloglucan biosynthesis mainly in the cell wall of root epidermal cells. Moreover, OsCESA-catalyzed cellulose deposition in the cell wall was enhanced by ethylene. OsCSLC-mediated xyloglucan biosynthesis likely plays an important role in restricting cell wall extension and cell elongation during the ethylene response in rice roots. Genetically, OsCSLC2 acts downstream of ETHYLENE-INSENSITIVE3-LIKE1 (OsEIL1)-mediated ethylene signaling, and OsCSLC1, 2, 7, 9 are directly activated by OsEIL1. Furthermore, the auxin signaling pathway is synergistically involved in these regulatory processes. These findings link plant hormone signaling with cell wall establishment, broadening our understanding of root growth plasticity in rice and other crops.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Zhou
- Key Lab of Seed Innovation, State Key Lab of Plant Genomics, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Yi-Hong Gao
- Key Lab of Seed Innovation, State Key Lab of Plant Genomics, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Bao-Cai Zhang
- Key Lab of Seed Innovation, State Key Lab of Plant Genomics, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Han-Lei Yang
- Key Lab of Seed Innovation, State Key Lab of Plant Genomics, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Yan-Bao Tian
- Key Lab of Seed Innovation, State Key Lab of Plant Genomics, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Yi-Hua Huang
- Key Lab of Seed Innovation, State Key Lab of Plant Genomics, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Cui-Cui Yin
- Key Lab of Seed Innovation, State Key Lab of Plant Genomics, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Jian-Jun Tao
- Key Lab of Seed Innovation, State Key Lab of Plant Genomics, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Wei Wei
- Key Lab of Seed Innovation, State Key Lab of Plant Genomics, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Wan-Ke Zhang
- Key Lab of Seed Innovation, State Key Lab of Plant Genomics, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Shou-Yi Chen
- Key Lab of Seed Innovation, State Key Lab of Plant Genomics, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Yi-Hua Zhou
- Key Lab of Seed Innovation, State Key Lab of Plant Genomics, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
- College of Advanced Agricultural Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Jin-Song Zhang
- Key Lab of Seed Innovation, State Key Lab of Plant Genomics, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
- College of Advanced Agricultural Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
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2
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Shen W, Zhang C, Wang G, Li Y, Zhang X, Cui Y, Hu Z, Shen S, Xu X, Cao Y, Li X, Wen J, Lin J. Variation pattern in the macromolecular (cellulose, hemicelluloses, lignin) composition of cell walls in Pinus tabulaeformis tree trunks at different ages as revealed using multiple techniques. Int J Biol Macromol 2024; 268:131619. [PMID: 38692998 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.131619] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2023] [Revised: 02/27/2024] [Accepted: 04/13/2024] [Indexed: 05/03/2024]
Abstract
The plant cell wall is a complex, heterogeneous structure primarily composed of cellulose, hemicelluloses, and lignin. Exploring the variations in these three macromolecules over time is crucial for understanding wood formation to enhance chemical processing and utilization. Here, we comprehensively analyzed the chemical composition of cell walls in the trunks of Pinus tabulaeformis using multiple techniques. In situ analysis showed that macromolecules accumulated gradually in the cell wall as the plant aged, and the distribution pattern of lignin was opposite that of polysaccharides, and both showed heterogenous distribution patterns. In addition, gel permeation chromatography (GPC) results revealed that the molecular weights of hemicelluloses decreased while that of lignin increased with age. Two-dimensional heteronuclear single quantum coherence nuclear magnetic resonance (2D-HSQC NMR) analysis indicated that hemicelluloses mainly comprised galactoglucomannan and arabinoglucuronoxylan, and the lignin types were mainly comprised guaiacyl (G) and p-hydroxyphenyl (H) units with three main linkage types: β-O-4, β-β, and β-5. Furthermore, the C-O bond (β-O-4) signals of lignin decreased while the C-C bonds (β-β and β-5) signals increased over time. Taken together, these findings shed light on wood formation in P. tabulaeformis and lay the foundation for enhancing the processing and use of wood and timber products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weiwei Shen
- State Key Laboratory of Efficient Production of Forest Resources, College of Biological Sciences and Technology, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China; Institute of Tree Development and Genome Editing, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China; National Engineering Research Center of Tree Breeding and Ecological Restoration, College of Biological Sciences and Technology, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Chen Zhang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Lignocellulosic Chemistry, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Guangchao Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Efficient Production of Forest Resources, College of Biological Sciences and Technology, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China; Institute of Tree Development and Genome Editing, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China; National Engineering Research Center of Tree Breeding and Ecological Restoration, College of Biological Sciences and Technology, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Yujian Li
- State Key Laboratory of Efficient Production of Forest Resources, College of Biological Sciences and Technology, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China; Institute of Tree Development and Genome Editing, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China; National Engineering Research Center of Tree Breeding and Ecological Restoration, College of Biological Sciences and Technology, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Xi Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Efficient Production of Forest Resources, College of Biological Sciences and Technology, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China; Institute of Tree Development and Genome Editing, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China; National Engineering Research Center of Tree Breeding and Ecological Restoration, College of Biological Sciences and Technology, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Yaning Cui
- State Key Laboratory of Efficient Production of Forest Resources, College of Biological Sciences and Technology, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China; Institute of Tree Development and Genome Editing, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China; National Engineering Research Center of Tree Breeding and Ecological Restoration, College of Biological Sciences and Technology, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Zijian Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Efficient Production of Forest Resources, College of Biological Sciences and Technology, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China; Institute of Tree Development and Genome Editing, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China; National Engineering Research Center of Tree Breeding and Ecological Restoration, College of Biological Sciences and Technology, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Shiya Shen
- State Key Laboratory of Efficient Production of Forest Resources, College of Biological Sciences and Technology, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China; Institute of Tree Development and Genome Editing, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China; National Engineering Research Center of Tree Breeding and Ecological Restoration, College of Biological Sciences and Technology, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Xiuping Xu
- Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100093, China
| | - Yuan Cao
- State Key Laboratory of Tree Genetics and Breeding, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Beijing 100091, China
| | - Xiaojuan Li
- State Key Laboratory of Efficient Production of Forest Resources, College of Biological Sciences and Technology, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China; Institute of Tree Development and Genome Editing, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China; National Engineering Research Center of Tree Breeding and Ecological Restoration, College of Biological Sciences and Technology, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Jialong Wen
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Lignocellulosic Chemistry, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China.
| | - Jinxing Lin
- State Key Laboratory of Efficient Production of Forest Resources, College of Biological Sciences and Technology, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China; Institute of Tree Development and Genome Editing, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China; National Engineering Research Center of Tree Breeding and Ecological Restoration, College of Biological Sciences and Technology, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China.
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3
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Wang J, Jia H, Daniel G, Gao J, Jiang X, Ma L, Yue S, Guo J, Yin Y. Insights into asynchronous changes of cell wall polymers accumulated in different cell types during conifer xylem differentiation. Carbohydr Polym 2023; 316:121076. [PMID: 37321750 DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2023.121076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2023] [Revised: 05/20/2023] [Accepted: 05/28/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
An improved understanding of the events involved in cell wall polymers deposition during xylem development could provide new scientific ways for molecular regulation and biomass utilization. Axial and radial cells are spatially heterogeneous and have highly cross-correlated developmental behavior, whereas the deposition of corresponding cell wall polymers during xylem differentiation is less studied. To clarify our hypothesis that cell wall polymers of two cell types accumulated asynchronously, we performed hierarchical visualization, including label-free in situ spectral imaging of different polymer compositions during the development of Pinus bungeana. In axial tracheids, the deposition of cellulose and glucomannan was observed on earlier stages of secondary wall thickening than that of xylan and lignin, while xylan distribution was strongly related to spatial distribution of lignin during differentiation. The content of lignin and polysaccharides increased by over 130 % and 60 % respectively when the S3 layer was formed, compared to the S2 stage. In ray cells, the deposition of crystalline cellulose, xylan, and lignin was generally lagged compared to that in corresponding axial tracheids, although the process followed a similar order. The concentration of lignin and polysaccharides in ray cells was only approximately 50 % of that in the axial tracheids during secondary wall thickening.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie Wang
- Department of Wood Anatomy and Utilization, Research Institute of Wood Industry, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Beijing 100091, China; Wood Specimen Resource Center (WOODPEDIA) of National Forestry and Grassland Administration, Beijing 100091, China.
| | - Hao Jia
- Key Laboratory of Biomechanics and Mechanobiology, Ministry of Education, Institute of Medical Photonics, Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Biomedical Engineering, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China.
| | - Geoffrey Daniel
- Department of Forest Biomaterials and Technology/Wood Science, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, 75007 Uppsala, Sweden.
| | - Jie Gao
- Department of Forest Biomaterials and Technology/Wood Science, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, 75007 Uppsala, Sweden.
| | - Xiaomei Jiang
- Department of Wood Anatomy and Utilization, Research Institute of Wood Industry, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Beijing 100091, China; Wood Specimen Resource Center (WOODPEDIA) of National Forestry and Grassland Administration, Beijing 100091, China.
| | - Lingyu Ma
- Department of Wood Anatomy and Utilization, Research Institute of Wood Industry, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Beijing 100091, China; Wood Specimen Resource Center (WOODPEDIA) of National Forestry and Grassland Administration, Beijing 100091, China
| | - Shuhua Yue
- Key Laboratory of Biomechanics and Mechanobiology, Ministry of Education, Institute of Medical Photonics, Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Biomedical Engineering, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China.
| | - Juan Guo
- Department of Wood Anatomy and Utilization, Research Institute of Wood Industry, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Beijing 100091, China; Wood Specimen Resource Center (WOODPEDIA) of National Forestry and Grassland Administration, Beijing 100091, China.
| | - Yafang Yin
- Department of Wood Anatomy and Utilization, Research Institute of Wood Industry, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Beijing 100091, China; Wood Specimen Resource Center (WOODPEDIA) of National Forestry and Grassland Administration, Beijing 100091, China.
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4
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Cunha Neto IL, Hall BT, Lanba AR, Blosenski JD, Onyenedum JG. Laser ablation tomography (LATscan) as a new tool for anatomical studies of woody plants. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2023; 239:429-444. [PMID: 36811411 DOI: 10.1111/nph.18831] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2022] [Accepted: 02/09/2023] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Traditionally, botanists study plant anatomy by carefully sectioning samples, histological staining to highlight tissues of interests, then imaging slides under light microscopy. This approach generates significant details; however, this workflow is laborious, particularly in woody vines (lianas) with heterogeneous anatomies, and ultimately yields two-dimensional (2D) images. Laser ablation tomography (LATscan) is a high-throughput imaging system that yields hundreds of images per minute. This method has proven useful for studying the structure of delicate plant tissues; however, its utility in understanding the structure of woody tissues is underexplored. We report LATscan-derived anatomical data from several stems of lianas (c. 20 mm) of seven species and compare these results with those obtained through traditional anatomical techniques. LATscan successfully allows the description of tissue composition by differentiating cell type, size, and shape, but also permits the recognition of distinct cell wall composition (e.g. lignin, suberin, cellulose) based on differential fluorescent signals on unstained samples. LATscan generate high-quality 2D images and 3D reconstructions of woody plant samples; therefore, this new technology is useful for both qualitative and quantitative analyses. This high-throughput imaging technology has the potential to bolster phenotyping of vegetative and reproductive anatomy, wood anatomy, and other biological systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Israel L Cunha Neto
- School of Integrative Plant Sciences and L. H. Bailey Hortorium, Cornell University, NY, 14853, Ithaca, USA
| | - Benjamin T Hall
- Laser for Innovative Solutions (L4iS), Suite 261, 200 Innovation Boulevard, State College, PA, 16803, USA
| | - Asheesh R Lanba
- Laser for Innovative Solutions (L4iS), Suite 261, 200 Innovation Boulevard, State College, PA, 16803, USA
- Department of Engineering, University of Southern Maine, 37 College Ave., Gorham, ME, 04038, USA
| | - Joshua D Blosenski
- Laser for Innovative Solutions (L4iS), Suite 261, 200 Innovation Boulevard, State College, PA, 16803, USA
| | - Joyce G Onyenedum
- School of Integrative Plant Sciences and L. H. Bailey Hortorium, Cornell University, NY, 14853, Ithaca, USA
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5
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Blaschek L, Murozuka E, Serk H, Ménard D, Pesquet E. Different combinations of laccase paralogs nonredundantly control the amount and composition of lignin in specific cell types and cell wall layers in Arabidopsis. THE PLANT CELL 2023; 35:889-909. [PMID: 36449969 DOI: 10.1101/2022.05.04.490011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2022] [Accepted: 11/23/2022] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Vascular plants reinforce the cell walls of the different xylem cell types with lignin phenolic polymers. Distinct lignin chemistries differ between each cell wall layer and each cell type to support their specific functions. Yet the mechanisms controlling the tight spatial localization of specific lignin chemistries remain unclear. Current hypotheses focus on control by monomer biosynthesis and/or export, while cell wall polymerization is viewed as random and nonlimiting. Here, we show that combinations of multiple individual laccases (LACs) are nonredundantly and specifically required to set the lignin chemistry in different cell types and their distinct cell wall layers. We dissected the roles of Arabidopsis thaliana LAC4, 5, 10, 12, and 17 by generating quadruple and quintuple loss-of-function mutants. Loss of these LACs in different combinations led to specific changes in lignin chemistry affecting both residue ring structures and/or aliphatic tails in specific cell types and cell wall layers. Moreover, we showed that LAC-mediated lignification has distinct functions in specific cell types, waterproofing fibers, and strengthening vessels. Altogether, we propose that the spatial control of lignin chemistry depends on different combinations of LACs with nonredundant activities immobilized in specific cell types and cell wall layers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leonard Blaschek
- Arrhenius Laboratories, Department of Ecology, Environment and Plant Sciences (DEEP), Stockholm University, 106 91 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Emiko Murozuka
- Arrhenius Laboratories, Department of Ecology, Environment and Plant Sciences (DEEP), Stockholm University, 106 91 Stockholm, Sweden
- Umeå Plant Science Centre (UPSC), Department of Plant Physiology, Umeå University, 901 87 Umeå, Sweden
| | - Henrik Serk
- Umeå Plant Science Centre (UPSC), Department of Plant Physiology, Umeå University, 901 87 Umeå, Sweden
| | - Delphine Ménard
- Arrhenius Laboratories, Department of Ecology, Environment and Plant Sciences (DEEP), Stockholm University, 106 91 Stockholm, Sweden
- Umeå Plant Science Centre (UPSC), Department of Plant Physiology, Umeå University, 901 87 Umeå, Sweden
| | - Edouard Pesquet
- Arrhenius Laboratories, Department of Ecology, Environment and Plant Sciences (DEEP), Stockholm University, 106 91 Stockholm, Sweden
- Umeå Plant Science Centre (UPSC), Department of Plant Physiology, Umeå University, 901 87 Umeå, Sweden
- Bolin Centre for Climate Research, Stockholm University, 106 91 Stockholm, Sweden
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6
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Blaschek L, Murozuka E, Serk H, Ménard D, Pesquet E. Different combinations of laccase paralogs nonredundantly control the amount and composition of lignin in specific cell types and cell wall layers in Arabidopsis. THE PLANT CELL 2023; 35:889-909. [PMID: 36449969 PMCID: PMC9940878 DOI: 10.1093/plcell/koac344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2022] [Revised: 10/21/2022] [Accepted: 11/23/2022] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Vascular plants reinforce the cell walls of the different xylem cell types with lignin phenolic polymers. Distinct lignin chemistries differ between each cell wall layer and each cell type to support their specific functions. Yet the mechanisms controlling the tight spatial localization of specific lignin chemistries remain unclear. Current hypotheses focus on control by monomer biosynthesis and/or export, while cell wall polymerization is viewed as random and nonlimiting. Here, we show that combinations of multiple individual laccases (LACs) are nonredundantly and specifically required to set the lignin chemistry in different cell types and their distinct cell wall layers. We dissected the roles of Arabidopsis thaliana LAC4, 5, 10, 12, and 17 by generating quadruple and quintuple loss-of-function mutants. Loss of these LACs in different combinations led to specific changes in lignin chemistry affecting both residue ring structures and/or aliphatic tails in specific cell types and cell wall layers. Moreover, we showed that LAC-mediated lignification has distinct functions in specific cell types, waterproofing fibers, and strengthening vessels. Altogether, we propose that the spatial control of lignin chemistry depends on different combinations of LACs with nonredundant activities immobilized in specific cell types and cell wall layers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leonard Blaschek
- Arrhenius Laboratories, Department of Ecology, Environment and Plant Sciences (DEEP), Stockholm University, 106 91 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Emiko Murozuka
- Arrhenius Laboratories, Department of Ecology, Environment and Plant Sciences (DEEP), Stockholm University, 106 91 Stockholm, Sweden
- Umeå Plant Science Centre (UPSC), Department of Plant Physiology, Umeå University, 901 87 Umeå, Sweden
| | - Henrik Serk
- Umeå Plant Science Centre (UPSC), Department of Plant Physiology, Umeå University, 901 87 Umeå, Sweden
| | - Delphine Ménard
- Arrhenius Laboratories, Department of Ecology, Environment and Plant Sciences (DEEP), Stockholm University, 106 91 Stockholm, Sweden
- Umeå Plant Science Centre (UPSC), Department of Plant Physiology, Umeå University, 901 87 Umeå, Sweden
| | - Edouard Pesquet
- Arrhenius Laboratories, Department of Ecology, Environment and Plant Sciences (DEEP), Stockholm University, 106 91 Stockholm, Sweden
- Umeå Plant Science Centre (UPSC), Department of Plant Physiology, Umeå University, 901 87 Umeå, Sweden
- Bolin Centre for Climate Research, Stockholm University, 106 91 Stockholm, Sweden
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Donaldson LA. Localizing Molecules in Plant Cell Walls Using Fluorescence Microscopy. Methods Mol Biol 2023; 2566:243-259. [PMID: 36152257 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-2675-7_20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Autofluorescence of plant tissues can be used as a label-free method to detect a range of phenolic-based cell wall components including lignin, suberin, and ferulate using widefield or confocal fluorescence microscopy. Likewise, fluorescently labeled antibodies can be used to localize specific carbohydrate molecules including arabinoxylan, β-1,4 galactan, glucomannan, glucuronoxylan, pectins, and xyloglucan. When combined, these two methods allow detailed study of topochemistry in different plant tissues for phenotyping of mutant varieties and plant biology studies. This article describes the protocols for fluorescent detection and imaging of molecules in plant cell walls using autofluorescence and immunofluorescence.
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Besserer A, Rose C, Deveau A. Visualization of Fungi During Wood Colonization and Decomposition by Microscopy: From Light to Electron Microscopy. Methods Mol Biol 2022; 2605:337-361. [PMID: 36520402 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-2871-3_17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Fungi are the principal decomposers of wood together with xylophage insects and, as such, have a central role in nutrient cycling of forest ecosystems. These fungi are also envisaged as promising tools for converting wood and waste of wood industries into chemicals, as alternative to fossil chemicals. At the same time, wood decomposers pose a threat to wooden building materials and are intensively fought. As a consequence, intense researches have been conducted over the past 50 years to identify the fungi responsible for wood decomposition, the mechanisms by which they do so, the wood properties involved in resistance or sensitivity to attacks and ways to preserve woods. Many tools are now available to study fungal colonization of wood, including: "omics" techniques, enzymatic assays, spectrometry, etc. However, all these approaches provide bulk information and the data obtained by these methods contain no information on the localization of fungi, the stage of decomposition of the wood and the potential interactions between microorganisms. In these regards, microscopy approaches provide complementary information that can strengthen conclusions. The present chapter describes a diverse range of microscopy approaches, from simple bench light microscopy to confocal and electron microscopies, to shed light on the way fungi colonize wood tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Christophe Rose
- Université de Lorraine, INRAE, UMR SILVA, Champenoux, France
| | - Aurélie Deveau
- University de Lorraine, INRAE, UMR1136 Interactions arbre microorganismes, Centre INRAE Grand Est -Nancy, Champenoux, France.
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9
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Abstract
Natural structural materials typically feature complex hierarchical anisotropic architectures, resulting in excellent damage tolerance. Such highly anisotropic structures, however, also provide an easy path for crack propagation, often leading to catastrophic fracture as evidenced, for example, by wood splitting. Here, we describe the weakly anisotropic structure of Ginkgo biloba (ginkgo) seed shell, which has excellent crack resistance in different directions. Ginkgo seed shell is composed of tightly packed polygonal sclereids with cell walls in which the cellulose microfibrils are oriented in a helicoidal pattern. We found that the sclereids contain distinct pits, special fine tubes like a "screw fastener," that interlock the helicoidal cell walls together. As a result, ginkgo seed shell demonstrates crack resistance in all directions, exhibiting specific fracture toughness that can rival other highly anisotropic natural materials, such as wood, bone, insect cuticle, and nacre. In situ characterization reveals ginkgo's unique toughening mechanism: pit-guided crack propagation. This mechanism forces the crack to depart from the weak compound middle lamella and enter into the sclereid, where the helicoidal cell wall significantly inhibits crack growth by the cleavage and breakage of the fibril-based cell walls. Ginkgo's toughening mechanism could provide guidelines for a new bioinspired strategy for the design of high-performance bulk materials.
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Maceda A, Terrazas T. Fluorescence Microscopy Methods for the Analysis and Characterization of Lignin. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:961. [PMID: 35267784 PMCID: PMC8912355 DOI: 10.3390/polym14050961] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2022] [Revised: 02/19/2022] [Accepted: 02/20/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Lignin is one of the most studied and analyzed materials due to its importance in cell structure and in lignocellulosic biomass. Because lignin exhibits autofluorescence, methods have been developed that allow it to be analyzed and characterized directly in plant tissue and in samples of lignocellulose fibers. Compared to destructive and costly analytical techniques, fluorescence microscopy presents suitable alternatives for the analysis of lignin autofluorescence. Therefore, this review article analyzes the different methods that exist and that have focused specifically on the study of lignin because with the revised methods, lignin is characterized efficiently and in a short time. The existing qualitative methods are Epifluorescence and Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy; however, other semi-qualitative methods have been developed that allow fluorescence measurements and to quantify the differences in the structural composition of lignin. The methods are fluorescence lifetime spectroscopy, two-photon microscopy, Föster resonance energy transfer, fluorescence recovery after photobleaching, total internal reflection fluorescence, and stimulated emission depletion. With these methods, it is possible to analyze the transport and polymerization of lignin monomers, distribution of lignin of the syringyl or guaiacyl type in the tissues of various plant species, and changes in the degradation of wood by pulping and biopulping treatments as well as identify the purity of cellulose nanofibers though lignocellulosic biomass.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agustín Maceda
- Laboratorio Nacional de Investigación y Servicio Agroalimentario y Forestal, Universidad Autónoma Chapingo, Texcoco 56230, Mexico;
| | - Teresa Terrazas
- Instituto de Biología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City 09230, Mexico
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Morel O, Lion C, Neutelings G, Stefanov J, Baldacci‐Cresp F, Simon C, Biot C, Hawkins S, Spriet C. REPRISAL: mapping lignification dynamics using chemistry, data segmentation, and ratiometric analysis. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2022; 188:816-830. [PMID: 34687294 PMCID: PMC8825451 DOI: 10.1093/plphys/kiab490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2021] [Accepted: 10/05/2021] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
This article describes a methodology for detailed mapping of the lignification capacity of plant cell walls that we have called "REPRISAL" for REPorter Ratiometrics Integrating Segmentation for Analyzing Lignification. REPRISAL consists of the combination of three separate approaches. In the first approach, H*, G*, and S* monolignol chemical reporters, corresponding to p-coumaryl alcohol, coniferyl alcohol, and sinapyl alcohol, are used to label the growing lignin polymer in a fluorescent triple labeling strategy based on the sequential use of three main bioorthogonal chemical reactions. In the second step, an automatic parametric and/or artificial intelligence segmentation algorithm is developed that assigns fluorescent image pixels to three distinct cell wall zones corresponding to cell corners, compound middle lamella and secondary cell walls. The last step corresponds to the exploitation of a ratiometric approach enabling statistical analyses of differences in monolignol reporter distribution (ratiometric method [RM] 1) and proportions (RM 2) within the different cell wall zones. We first describe the use of this methodology to map developmentally related changes in the lignification capacity of wild-type Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) interfascicular fiber cells. We then apply REPRISAL to analyze the Arabidopsis peroxidase (PRX) mutant prx64 and provide further evidence for the implication of the AtPRX64 protein in floral stem lignification. In addition, we also demonstrate the general applicability of REPRISAL by using it to map lignification capacity in poplar (Populus tremula × Populus alba), flax (Linum usitatissimum), and maize (Zea mays). Finally, we show that the methodology can be used to map the incorporation of a fucose reporter into noncellulosic cell wall polymers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oriane Morel
- Univ. Lille, CNRS, UMR 8576—UGSF—Unité de Glycobiologie Structurale et Fonctionnelle, Lille F 59000, France
- Institute of Biophysics, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - Cedric Lion
- Univ. Lille, CNRS, UMR 8576—UGSF—Unité de Glycobiologie Structurale et Fonctionnelle, Lille F 59000, France
| | - Godfrey Neutelings
- Univ. Lille, CNRS, UMR 8576—UGSF—Unité de Glycobiologie Structurale et Fonctionnelle, Lille F 59000, France
| | - Jonathan Stefanov
- Univ. Lille, CNRS, UMR 8576—UGSF—Unité de Glycobiologie Structurale et Fonctionnelle, Lille F 59000, France
- Univ. Lille, CNRS, Inserm, CHU Lille, Institut Pasteur de Lille, US 41—UMS 2014—PLBS, Lille F-59000, France
| | - Fabien Baldacci‐Cresp
- Univ. Lille, CNRS, UMR 8576—UGSF—Unité de Glycobiologie Structurale et Fonctionnelle, Lille F 59000, France
| | - Clemence Simon
- Univ. Lille, CNRS, UMR 8576—UGSF—Unité de Glycobiologie Structurale et Fonctionnelle, Lille F 59000, France
- Univ. Lille, CNRS, Inserm, CHU Lille, Institut Pasteur de Lille, US 41—UMS 2014—PLBS, Lille F-59000, France
| | - Christophe Biot
- Univ. Lille, CNRS, UMR 8576—UGSF—Unité de Glycobiologie Structurale et Fonctionnelle, Lille F 59000, France
- Author for communication:
| | - Simon Hawkins
- Univ. Lille, CNRS, UMR 8576—UGSF—Unité de Glycobiologie Structurale et Fonctionnelle, Lille F 59000, France
| | - Corentin Spriet
- Univ. Lille, CNRS, UMR 8576—UGSF—Unité de Glycobiologie Structurale et Fonctionnelle, Lille F 59000, France
- Univ. Lille, CNRS, Inserm, CHU Lille, Institut Pasteur de Lille, US 41—UMS 2014—PLBS, Lille F-59000, France
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12
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Hiraide H, Tobimatsu Y, Yoshinaga A, Lam PY, Kobayashi M, Matsushita Y, Fukushima K, Takabe K. Localised laccase activity modulates distribution of lignin polymers in gymnosperm compression wood. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2021; 230:2186-2199. [PMID: 33570753 PMCID: PMC8252379 DOI: 10.1111/nph.17264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2020] [Accepted: 02/03/2021] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
The woody stems of coniferous gymnosperms produce specialised compression wood to adjust the stem growth orientation in response to gravitropic stimulation. During this process, tracheids develop a compression-wood-specific S2 L cell wall layer with lignins highly enriched with p-hydroxyphenyl (H)-type units derived from H-type monolignol, whereas lignins produced in the cell walls of normal wood tracheids are exclusively composed of guaiacyl (G)-type units from G-type monolignol with a trace amount of H-type units. We show that laccases, a class of lignin polymerisation enzymes, play a crucial role in the spatially organised polymerisation of H-type and G-type monolignols during compression wood formation in Japanese cypress (Chamaecyparis obtusa). We performed a series of chemical-probe-aided imaging analysis on C. obtusa compression wood cell walls, together with gene expression, protein localisation and enzymatic assays of C. obtusa laccases. Our data indicated that CoLac1 and CoLac3 with differential oxidation activities towards H-type and G-type monolignols were precisely localised to distinct cell wall layers in which H-type and G-type lignin units were preferentially produced during the development of compression wood tracheids. We propose that, not only the spatial localisation of laccases, but also their biochemical characteristics dictate the spatial patterning of lignin polymerisation in gymnosperm compression wood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hideto Hiraide
- Graduate School of AgricultureKyoto UniversityKitashirakawa‐oiwakechoKyoto606‐8502Japan
- Research Institute for Sustainable HumanosphereKyoto UniversityGokasho, Uji611‐0011Japan
| | - Yuki Tobimatsu
- Research Institute for Sustainable HumanosphereKyoto UniversityGokasho, Uji611‐0011Japan
| | - Arata Yoshinaga
- Graduate School of AgricultureKyoto UniversityKitashirakawa‐oiwakechoKyoto606‐8502Japan
| | - Pui Ying Lam
- Research Institute for Sustainable HumanosphereKyoto UniversityGokasho, Uji611‐0011Japan
| | - Masaru Kobayashi
- Graduate School of AgricultureKyoto UniversityKitashirakawa‐oiwakechoKyoto606‐8502Japan
| | - Yasuyuki Matsushita
- Graduate School of Bioagricultural SciencesNagoya UniversityFuro‐choNagoya464‐8601Japan
| | - Kazuhiko Fukushima
- Graduate School of Bioagricultural SciencesNagoya UniversityFuro‐choNagoya464‐8601Japan
| | - Keiji Takabe
- Graduate School of AgricultureKyoto UniversityKitashirakawa‐oiwakechoKyoto606‐8502Japan
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13
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Pu J, Wang L, Zhang W, Ma J, Zhang X, Putnis CV. Organically-bound silicon enhances resistance to enzymatic degradation and nanomechanical properties of rice plant cell walls. Carbohydr Polym 2021; 266:118057. [PMID: 34044915 DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2021.118057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2020] [Revised: 04/02/2021] [Accepted: 04/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Plant cell walls exhibit excellent mechanical properties, which form the structural basis for sustainable bioresources and multifunctional nanocelluloses. The wall nanomechanical properties of living cells through covalent modifications of hybrid inorganic elements, such as silicon, may confer significant influence on local mechano-response and enzymatic degradation. Here, we present a combination of ex situ measurements of enzyme-released oligosaccharide fragments using MALDI-TOF MS and in situ atomic force microscopy (AFM) imaging through PeakForce quantitative nanomechanical mapping of tip-functionalized single-molecule enzyme-polysaccharide substrate recognition and the nanoscale dissolution kinetics of individual cellulose microfibrils of living rice (Oryza sativa) cells following silicate cross-linking of cell wall xyloglucan. We find that xyloglucan-bound silicon enhances the resistance to degradation by cellulase and improves the wall nanomechanical properties in the elastic modulus at the single-cell level. The findings establish a direct link between an inorganic element of silicon and the nanoscale architecture of plant cell wall materials for sustainable utilization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junbao Pu
- College of Resources and Environment, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
| | - Lijun Wang
- College of Resources and Environment, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China.
| | - Wenjun Zhang
- College of Resources and Environment, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China.
| | - Jie Ma
- College of Resources and Environment, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
| | - Xiuqing Zhang
- College of Resources and Environment, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, China
| | - Christine V Putnis
- Institut für Mineralogie, University of Münster, 48149, Münster, Germany; School of Molecular and Life Science, Curtin University, 6845, Perth, Australia
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14
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Singh V, Zemach H, Shabtai S, Aloni R, Yang J, Zhang P, Sergeeva L, Ligterink W, Firon N. Proximal and Distal Parts of Sweetpotato Adventitious Roots Display Differences in Root Architecture, Lignin, and Starch Metabolism and Their Developmental Fates. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2021; 11:609923. [PMID: 33552103 PMCID: PMC7855870 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2020.609923] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2020] [Accepted: 12/10/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Sweetpotato is an important food crop globally, serving as a rich source of carbohydrates, vitamins, fiber, and micronutrients. Sweetpotato yield depends on the modification of adventitious roots into storage roots. The underlying mechanism of this developmental switch is not fully understood. Interestingly, storage-root formation is manifested by formation of starch-accumulating parenchyma cells and bulking of the distal part of the root, while the proximal part does not show bulking. This system, where two parts of the same adventitious root display different developmental fates, was used by us in order to better characterize the anatomical, physiological, and molecular mechanisms involved in sweetpotato storage-root formation. We show that, as early as 1 and 2 weeks after planting, the proximal part of the root exhibited enhanced xylem development together with increased/massive lignin deposition, while, at the same time, the distal root part exhibited significantly elevated starch accumulation. In accordance with these developmental differences, the proximal root part exhibited up-regulated transcript levels of sweetpotato orthologs of Arabidopsis vascular-development regulators and key genes of lignin biosynthesis, while the distal part showed up-regulation of genes encoding enzymes of starch biosynthesis. All these recorded differences between proximal and distal root parts were further enhanced at 5 weeks after planting, when storage roots were formed at the distal part. Our results point to down-regulation of fiber formation and lignification, together with up-regulation of starch biosynthesis, as the main events underlying storage-root formation, marking/highlighting several genes as potential regulators, providing a valuable database of genes for further research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vikram Singh
- Department of Vegetable and Field Crops, Institute of Plant Sciences, Agricultural Research Organization, The Volcani Center, Rishon Le-Zion, Israel
| | - Hanita Zemach
- Department of Fruit Tree Sciences, Institute of Plant Sciences, Agricultural Research Organization, The Volcani Center, Rishon Le-Zion, Israel
| | - Sara Shabtai
- Department of Vegetable and Field Crops, Institute of Plant Sciences, Agricultural Research Organization, The Volcani Center, Rishon Le-Zion, Israel
| | - Roni Aloni
- School of Plant Sciences and Food Security, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Jun Yang
- Shanghai Chenshan Plant Science Research Center, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai Chenshan Botanical Garden, Shanghai, China
| | - Peng Zhang
- CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Lidiya Sergeeva
- Laboratory of Plant Physiology, Department of Plant Sciences, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, Netherlands
| | - Wilco Ligterink
- Laboratory of Plant Physiology, Department of Plant Sciences, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, Netherlands
| | - Nurit Firon
- Department of Vegetable and Field Crops, Institute of Plant Sciences, Agricultural Research Organization, The Volcani Center, Rishon Le-Zion, Israel
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15
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Hori C, Takata N, Lam PY, Tobimatsu Y, Nagano S, Mortimer JC, Cullen D. Identifying transcription factors that reduce wood recalcitrance and improve enzymatic degradation of xylem cell wall in Populus. Sci Rep 2020; 10:22043. [PMID: 33328495 PMCID: PMC7744511 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-78781-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2020] [Accepted: 10/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Developing an efficient deconstruction step of woody biomass for biorefinery has been drawing considerable attention since its xylem cell walls display highly recalcitrance nature. Here, we explored transcriptional factors (TFs) that reduce wood recalcitrance and improve saccharification efficiency in Populus species. First, 33 TF genes up-regulated during poplar wood formation were selected as potential regulators of xylem cell wall structure. The transgenic hybrid aspens (Populus tremula × Populus tremuloides) overexpressing each selected TF gene were screened for in vitro enzymatic saccharification. Of these, four transgenic seedlings overexpressing previously uncharacterized TF genes increased total glucan hydrolysis on average compared to control. The best performing lines overexpressing Pt × tERF123 and Pt × tZHD14 were further grown to form mature xylem in the greenhouse. Notably, the xylem cell walls exhibited significantly increased total xylan hydrolysis as well as initial hydrolysis rates of glucan. The increased saccharification of Pt × tERF123-overexpressing lines could reflect the improved balance of cell wall components, i.e., high cellulose and low xylan and lignin content, which could be caused by upregulation of cellulose synthase genes upon the expression of Pt × tERF123. Overall, we successfully identified Pt × tERF123 and Pt × tZHD14 as effective targets for reducing cell wall recalcitrance and improving the enzymatic degradation of woody plant biomass.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiaki Hori
- Research Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, 060-8628, Japan.
| | - Naoki Takata
- Forest Bio-Research Center, Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute, Forest Research and Management Organization, Hitachi, Ibaraki, 319-1301, Japan
| | - Pui Ying Lam
- Research Institute for Sustainable Humanosphere, Kyoto University, Uji, Kyoto, 611-0011, Japan
| | - Yuki Tobimatsu
- Research Institute for Sustainable Humanosphere, Kyoto University, Uji, Kyoto, 611-0011, Japan
| | - Soichiro Nagano
- Forest Tree Breeding Center, Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute, Forest Research and Management Organization, Hitachi, Ibaraki, 319-1301, Japan
| | - Jenny C Mortimer
- Environmental Genomics and Systems Biology Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Joint BioEnergy Institute, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
| | - Dan Cullen
- U. S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, WI, 53726, USA
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16
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Effects of shading on lignin biosynthesis in the leaf of tea plant (Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze). Mol Genet Genomics 2020; 296:165-177. [PMID: 33112986 DOI: 10.1007/s00438-020-01737-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2020] [Accepted: 10/12/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Shading can effectively reduce photoinhibition and improve the quality of tea. Lignin is one of the most important secondary metabolites that play vital functions in plant growth and development. However, little is known about the relationship between shading and xylogenesis in tea plant. To investigate the effects of shading on lignin accumulation in tea plants, 'Longjing 43' was treated with no shading (S0), 40% (S1) and 80% (S2) shading treatments, respectively. The leaf area and lignin content of tea plant leaves decreased under shading treatments (especially S2). The anatomical characteristics showed that lignin is mainly distributed in the xylem of tea leaves. Promoter analysis indicated that the genes involved in lignin pathway contain several light recognition elements. The transcript abundances of 12 lignin-associated genes were altered under shading treatments. Correlation analysis indicated that most genes showed strong positive correlation with lignin content, and CsPAL, Cs4CL, CsF5H, and CsLAC exhibited significant positively correlation under 40% and 80% shading treatments. The results showed that shading may have an important effect on lignin accumulation in tea leaves. This work will potentially helpful to understand the regulation mechanism of lignin pathway under shading treatment, and provide reference for reducing lignin content and improving tea quality through shading treatment in field operation.
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17
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Thornburg NE, Pecha MB, Brandner DG, Reed ML, Vermaas JV, Michener WE, Katahira R, Vinzant TB, Foust TD, Donohoe BS, Román-Leshkov Y, Ciesielski PN, Beckham GT. Mesoscale Reaction-Diffusion Phenomena Governing Lignin-First Biomass Fractionation. CHEMSUSCHEM 2020; 13:4495-4509. [PMID: 32246557 DOI: 10.1002/cssc.202000558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2020] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Lignin solvolysis from the plant cell wall is the critical first step in lignin depolymerization processes involving whole biomass feedstocks. However, little is known about the coupled reaction kinetics and transport phenomena that govern the effective rates of lignin extraction. Here, we report a validated simulation framework that determines intrinsic, transport-independent kinetic parameters for the solvolysis of lignin, hemicellulose, and cellulose upon incorporation of feedstock characteristics for the methanol-based extraction of poplar as an example fractionation process. Lignin fragment diffusion is predicted to compete on the same time and length scales as reactions of lignin within cell walls and longitudinal pores of typical milled particle sizes, and mass transfer resistances are predicted to dominate the solvolysis of poplar particles that exceed approximately 2 mm in length. Beyond the approximately 2 mm threshold, effectiveness factors are predicted to be below 0.25, which implies that pore diffusion resistances may attenuate observable kinetic rate measurements by at least 75 % in such cases. Thus, researchers are recommended to conduct kinetic evaluations of lignin-first catalysts using biomass particles smaller than approximately 0.2 mm in length to avoid feedstock-specific mass transfer limitations in lignin conversion studies. Overall, this work highlights opportunities to improve lignin solvolysis by genetic engineering and provides actionable kinetic information to guide the design and scale-up of emerging biorefinery strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas E Thornburg
- National Bioenergy Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 15013 Denver West Parkway, Golden, CO, 80401, USA
| | - M Brennan Pecha
- Biosciences Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 15013 Denver West Parkway, Golden, CO, 80401, USA
| | - David G Brandner
- National Bioenergy Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 15013 Denver West Parkway, Golden, CO, 80401, USA
| | - Michelle L Reed
- Biosciences Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 15013 Denver West Parkway, Golden, CO, 80401, USA
| | - Josh V Vermaas
- Biosciences Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 15013 Denver West Parkway, Golden, CO, 80401, USA
| | - William E Michener
- Biosciences Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 15013 Denver West Parkway, Golden, CO, 80401, USA
| | - Rui Katahira
- National Bioenergy Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 15013 Denver West Parkway, Golden, CO, 80401, USA
| | - Todd B Vinzant
- Biosciences Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 15013 Denver West Parkway, Golden, CO, 80401, USA
| | - Thomas D Foust
- National Bioenergy Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 15013 Denver West Parkway, Golden, CO, 80401, USA
| | - Bryon S Donohoe
- Biosciences Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 15013 Denver West Parkway, Golden, CO, 80401, USA
| | - Yuriy Román-Leshkov
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Peter N Ciesielski
- Biosciences Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 15013 Denver West Parkway, Golden, CO, 80401, USA
| | - Gregg T Beckham
- National Bioenergy Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 15013 Denver West Parkway, Golden, CO, 80401, USA
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18
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Kitin P, Nakaba S, Hunt CG, Lim S, Funada R. Direct fluorescence imaging of lignocellulosic and suberized cell walls in roots and stems. AOB PLANTS 2020; 12:plaa032. [PMID: 32793329 PMCID: PMC7415075 DOI: 10.1093/aobpla/plaa032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2020] [Accepted: 06/21/2020] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Investigating plant structure is fundamental in botanical science and provides crucial knowledge for the theories of plant evolution, ecophysiology and for the biotechnological practices. Modern plant anatomy often targets the formation, localization and characterization of cellulosic, lignified or suberized cell walls. While classical methods developed in the 1960s are still popular, recent innovations in tissue preparation, fluorescence staining and microscopy equipment offer advantages to the traditional practices for investigation of the complex lignocellulosic walls. Our goal is to enhance the productivity and quality of microscopy work by focusing on quick and cost-effective preparation of thick sections or plant specimen surfaces and efficient use of direct fluorescent stains. We discuss popular histochemical microscopy techniques for visualization of cell walls, such as autofluorescence or staining with calcofluor, Congo red (CR), fluorol yellow (FY) and safranin, and provide detailed descriptions of our own approaches and protocols. Autofluorescence of lignin in combination with CR and FY staining can clearly differentiate between lignified, suberized and unlignified cell walls in root and stem tissues. Glycerol can serve as an effective clearing medium as well as the carrier of FY for staining of suberin and lipids allowing for observation of thick histological preparations. Three-dimensional (3D) imaging of all cell types together with chemical information by wide-field fluorescence or confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) was achieved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Kitin
- School of Environmental and Forest Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
- Institute of Global Innovation Research, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Fuchu-Tokyo, Japan
| | - Satoshi Nakaba
- Institute of Global Innovation Research, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Fuchu-Tokyo, Japan
- Faculty of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Fuchu-Tokyo, Japan
| | | | - Sierin Lim
- School of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Ryo Funada
- Institute of Global Innovation Research, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Fuchu-Tokyo, Japan
- Faculty of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Fuchu-Tokyo, Japan
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19
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Jakes JE, Zelinka SL, Hunt CG, Ciesielski P, Frihart CR, Yelle D, Passarini L, Gleber SC, Vine D, Vogt S. Measurement of moisture-dependent ion diffusion constants in wood cell wall layers using time-lapse micro X-ray fluorescence microscopy. Sci Rep 2020; 10:9919. [PMID: 32555373 PMCID: PMC7303177 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-66916-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2020] [Accepted: 05/29/2020] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Our future bioeconomy depends on increased utilization of renewable lignocellulosic biomass. Controlling the diffusion of chemicals, such as inorganic ions, within secondary plant cell walls is central to many biomass applications. However, insufficient understanding of intra-cell-wall diffusion within secondary plant cell walls is hindering the advancement of many lignocellulosic biomass applications. In this work, X-ray fluorescence microscopy was used to measure diffusion constants of K+, Cu2+, and Cl− diffusing through loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) cell wall layers under 70%, 75%, or 80% relative humidity (RH). Results revealed that diffusion constants increased with RH, the larger Cu2+ diffused more slowly than the K+, and the Cl− diffusion constant was the same as that for the counter cation, indicating cations and anions diffused together to maintain charge neutrality. Comparison with electrical conductivity measurements showed that conductivity is being controlled by ion mobility over these RH. The results further support that intra-cell-wall diffusion of inorganic ions is a Fickian diffusion process occurring through rubbery amorphous polysaccharides, which contradicts previous assertions that intra-cell-wall diffusion is an aqueous process occurring through water pathways. Researchers can now utilize polymer science approaches to engineer the molecular architecture of lignocellulosic biomass to optimize properties for specific end uses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph E Jakes
- Forest Biopolymers Science and Engineering, USDA Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory, One Gifford Pinchot Drive, Madison, WI, 53726, USA.
| | - Samuel L Zelinka
- Building and Fire Sciences, USDA Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory, One Gifford Pinchot Drive, Madison, WI, 53726, USA
| | - Christopher G Hunt
- Forest Biopolymers Science and Engineering, USDA Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory, One Gifford Pinchot Drive, Madison, WI, 53726, USA
| | - Peter Ciesielski
- Biosciences Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 15013 Denver W Pkwy, Golden, CO, 80401, USA
| | - Charles R Frihart
- Forest Biopolymers Science and Engineering, USDA Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory, One Gifford Pinchot Drive, Madison, WI, 53726, USA
| | - Daniel Yelle
- Forest Biopolymers Science and Engineering, USDA Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory, One Gifford Pinchot Drive, Madison, WI, 53726, USA
| | - Leandro Passarini
- Building and Fire Sciences, USDA Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory, One Gifford Pinchot Drive, Madison, WI, 53726, USA
| | - Sophie-Charlotte Gleber
- X-ray Science Division, Advanced Photon Source, Argonne National Laboratory, 9700 S. Cass Avenue, Lemont, IL, 60439, USA
| | - David Vine
- X-ray Science Division, Advanced Photon Source, Argonne National Laboratory, 9700 S. Cass Avenue, Lemont, IL, 60439, USA
| | - Stefan Vogt
- X-ray Science Division, Advanced Photon Source, Argonne National Laboratory, 9700 S. Cass Avenue, Lemont, IL, 60439, USA
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Abstract
Plants contain abundant autofluorescent molecules that can be used for biochemical, physiological, or imaging studies. The two most studied molecules are chlorophyll (orange/red fluorescence) and lignin (blue/green fluorescence). Chlorophyll fluorescence is used to measure the physiological state of plants using handheld devices that can measure photosynthesis, linear electron flux, and CO2 assimilation by directly scanning leaves, or by using reconnaissance imaging from a drone, an aircraft or a satellite. Lignin fluorescence can be used in imaging studies of wood for phenotyping of genetic variants in order to evaluate reaction wood formation, assess chemical modification of wood, and study fundamental cell wall properties using Förster Resonant Energy Transfer (FRET) and other methods. Many other fluorescent molecules have been characterized both within the protoplast and as components of cell walls. Such molecules have fluorescence emissions across the visible spectrum and can potentially be differentiated by spectral imaging or by evaluating their response to change in pH (ferulates) or chemicals such as Naturstoff reagent (flavonoids). Induced autofluorescence using glutaraldehyde fixation has been used to enable imaging of proteins/organelles in the cell protoplast and to allow fluorescence imaging of fungal mycelium.
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21
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Yang X, Reid MS, Olsén P, Berglund LA. Eco-Friendly Cellulose Nanofibrils Designed by Nature: Effects from Preserving Native State. ACS NANO 2020; 14:724-735. [PMID: 31886646 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.9b07659] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Cellulose nanofibrils (CNFs) show high modulus and strength and are already used in industrial applications. Mechanical properties of neat CNF films or CNF-polymer matrix nanocomposites are usually much better than for polymer matrix composite films reinforced by clay, graphene, graphene oxide, or carbon nanotubes. In order to obtain small CNF diameter and colloidal stability, chemical modification has so far been necessary, but this increases cost and reduces eco-friendly attributes. In this study, an unmodified holocellulose CNF (Holo-CNF) with small diameter is obtained from mildly peracetic acid delignified wood fibers. CNF is readily defibrillated by low-energy kitchen blender processing. The hemicellulose coating on individual fibrils in the wood plant cell wall is largely preserved in Holo-CNF. This "native" CNF shows well-preserved native fibril structure in terms of length (∼2.1 μm), diameter (<5 nm), high crystallinity, high cellulose molar mass, electronegative charge, and limited mechanical processing damage. The hemicellulose coating contributes mechanical properties and high optical transmittance for CNF nanopaper, which can otherwise only be achieved with chemically modified CNFs. The CNF nanopaper shows superior mechanical properties with a Young's modulus of 21 GPa and an ultimate strength of 320 MPa. Moreover, hemicellulose imparts recyclability from the dried state. Altogether, this native CNF represents a class of colloidally stable, eco-friendly, low-cost CNF of small diameter for large-scale applications of nanopaper and nanomaterials.
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Effects of Moisture on Diffusion in Unmodified Wood Cell Walls: A Phenomenological Polymer Science Approach. FORESTS 2019. [DOI: 10.3390/f10121084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Despite the importance of cell wall diffusion to nearly all aspects of wood utilization, diffusion mechanisms and the detailed effects of moisture remain poorly understood. In this perspective, we introduce and employ approaches established in polymer science to develop a phenomenological framework for understanding the effects of moisture on diffusion in unmodified wood cell walls. The premise for applying this polymer-science-based approach to wood is that wood polymers (cellulose, hemicelluloses, and lignin) behave like typical solid polymers. Therefore, the movement of chemicals through wood cell walls is a diffusion process through a solid polymer, which is in contrast to previous assertions that transport of some chemicals occurs via aqueous pathways in the cell wall layers. Diffusion in polymers depends on the interrelations between free volume in the polymer matrix, molecular motions of the polymer, diffusant dimensions, and solubility of the diffusant in the polymer matrix. Because diffusion strongly depends on whether a polymer is in a rigid glassy state or soft rubbery state, it is important to understand glass transitions in the amorphous wood polymers. Through a review and analysis of available literature, we conclude that in wood both lignin and the amorphous polysaccharides very likely have glass transitions. After developing and presenting this polymer-science-based perspective of diffusion through unmodified wood cell walls, suggested directions for future research are discussed. A key consideration is that a large difference between diffusion through wood polymers and typical polymers is the high swelling pressures that can develop in unmodified wood cell walls. This pressure likely arises from the hierarchical structure of wood and should be taken into consideration in the development of predictive models for diffusion in unmodified wood cell walls.
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Maceda A, Soto-Hernández M, Peña-Valdivia CB, Trejo C, Terrazas T. Differences in the Structural Chemical Composition of the Primary Xylem of Cactaceae: A Topochemical Perspective. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2019; 10:1497. [PMID: 31850014 PMCID: PMC6892835 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2019.01497] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2019] [Accepted: 10/29/2019] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
The xylem of Cactaceae is a complex system with different types of cells whose main function is to conduct and store water, mostly during the development of primary xylem, which has vessel elements and wide-band tracheids. The anatomy of primary xylem of Cactaceae has been widely studied, but little is known about its chemical composition. The aim of this study was to determine the structural chemical composition of the primary xylem of Cactaceae and to compare it with the anatomy in the group. Seeds from eight cacti species were used, representing the Pereskioideae, Opuntioideae, and Cactoideae subfamilies. Seeds were germinated and grown for 8 months. Subsequently, only the stem of the seedling was selected, dried, milled, and processed following the TAPPI T-222 om-02 norm; lignin was quantified using the Klason method and cellulose with the Kurshner-Höffer method. Using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, the percentage of syringyl and guaiacyl in lignin was calculated. Seedlings of each species were fixed, sectioned, and stained for their anatomical description and fluorescence microscopy analysis for the topochemistry of the primary xylem. The results showed that there were significant differences between species (p < 0.05), except in the hemicelluloses. Through a principal component analysis, it was found that the amount of extractive-free stem and hot water-soluble extractives were the variables that separated the species, followed by cellulose and hemicelluloses since the seedlings developed mainly parenchyma cells and the conductive tissue showed vessel elements and wide-band tracheids, both with annular and helical thickenings in secondary walls. The type of lignin with the highest percentage was guaiacyl-type, which is accumulated mainly in the vessels, providing rigidity. Whereas in the wide-band tracheids from metaxylem, syringyl lignin accumulated in the secondary walls S2 and S3, which permits an efficient flow of water and gives the plant the ability to endure difficult conditions during seedling development. Only one species can be considered to have paedomorphosis since the conductive elements had a similar chemistry in primary and secondary xylem.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agustín Maceda
- Programa de Botánica, Colegio de Postgraduados en Ciencias Agrícolas, Texcoco, Mexico
| | - Marcos Soto-Hernández
- Programa de Botánica, Colegio de Postgraduados en Ciencias Agrícolas, Texcoco, Mexico
| | | | - Carlos Trejo
- Programa de Botánica, Colegio de Postgraduados en Ciencias Agrícolas, Texcoco, Mexico
| | - Teresa Terrazas
- Instituto de Biología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, Mexico
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Pramod S, Rajput KS, Rao KS. Immunolocalization of β-(1-4)-D-galactan, xyloglucans and xylans in the reaction xylem fibres of Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY : PPB 2019; 142:217-223. [PMID: 31310944 DOI: 10.1016/j.plaphy.2019.07.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2019] [Revised: 07/09/2019] [Accepted: 07/09/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Cell wall architecture of tension wood fibres represents a suitable biological system to study the mechanism of growth and maintenance of posture of trees growing under various physical and physiological growth constraints. In the present study, we investigated the spatial distributions of β-(1-4)-D-galactan, xyloglucan and xylans (both less and highly substituted) in the opposite and tension wood fibres of bent Leucaena leucocephala by immunolabelling with monoclonal antibodies LM5, CCRCM1, LM10 and LM11 specific to these carbohydrate epitopes. The presence of non-lignified, tertiary wall layer is the typical tension wood characteristic associated with the reaction xylem fibres in Leucaena. LM5 labelling of opposite fibres showed weak labelling in the cell walls indicating less concentration of β-(1-4)-D-galactans while tension wood showed strong labelling in the tertiary wall layer suggesting the gelatinous layer (G-layer) has a strong cross linking with β-(1-4)-D-galactans. Xyloglucan distribution was more in the compound middle lamellae and the primary wall-S1 layer boundary of tension wood fibres as compared to that of opposite wood. A weak labelling was also evident near the boundary between the G-layer and the secondary wall of tension wood fibres. The secondary wall of opposite and tension wood fibres showed a strong distribution of both ls ACG Xs (LM10) and hs ACG Xs (LM11) while a weak labelling was noticed in the compound middle lamella. Tension wood fibres also showed strong xylan labelling mainly confined to the lignified secondary walls while the G-layer showed weak xylan labelling. In conclusion, our results suggest that β-(1-4)-D-galactans and xyloglucans could be implicated in the tensile stress generation within the G-layer of tension wood fibres of Leucaena leucocephala.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Pramod
- Department of Botany, The Maharaja Sayajirao of Baroda, Vadodara, 390002, Gujarat, India.
| | - Kishore S Rajput
- Department of Botany, The Maharaja Sayajirao of Baroda, Vadodara, 390002, Gujarat, India
| | - Karumanchi S Rao
- Department of Biosciences, Sardar Patel University, Vallabh Vidyanagar, 388120, Gujarat, India
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Peng H, Salmén L, Stevanic JS, Lu J. Structural organization of the cell wall polymers in compression wood as revealed by FTIR microspectroscopy. PLANTA 2019; 250:163-171. [PMID: 30953149 DOI: 10.1007/s00425-019-03158-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2019] [Accepted: 04/01/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Glucomannan was more strongly oriented, in line with the orientation of cellulose, than the xylan in both compression wood and normal wood of Chinese fir. Lignin in compression wood was somewhat more oriented in the direction of the cellulose microfibrils than in normal wood. The structural organization in compression wood (CW) is quite different from that in normal wood (NW). To shed more light on the structural organization of the polymers in plant cell walls, Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) microscopy in transmission mode has been used to compare the S2-dominated mean orientation of wood polymers in CW with that in NW from Chinese fir (Cunninghamia lanceolata). Polarized FTIR measurements revealed that in both CW and NW samples, glucomannan and xylan showed a parallel orientation with respect to the cellulose microfibrils. In both wood samples, the glucomannan showed a much greater degree of orientation than the xylan, indicating that the glucomannan has established a stronger interaction with cellulose than xylan. For the lignin, the absorption peak also indicated an orientation along the direction of the cellulose microfibrils, but this orientation was more pronounced in CW than in NW, indicating that the lignin is affected by the orientation of the cellulose microfibrils more strongly in CW than it is in NW.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui Peng
- Research Institute of Wood Industry of Chinese Academy of Forestry, Hunan Collaborative Innovation Center for Effective Utilizing of Wood and Bamboo Resources, Beijing, 100091, People's Republic of China
| | | | | | - Jianxiong Lu
- Research Institute of Wood Industry of Chinese Academy of Forestry, Hunan Collaborative Innovation Center for Effective Utilizing of Wood and Bamboo Resources, Beijing, 100091, People's Republic of China.
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26
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Reza M, Bertinetto C, Kesari KK, Engelhardt P, Ruokolainen J, Vuorinen T. Cellulose elementary fibril orientation in the spruce S 1-2 transition layer. Sci Rep 2019; 9:3869. [PMID: 30846723 PMCID: PMC6405864 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-40303-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2018] [Accepted: 02/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
The tight organization of major wood cell wall polymers limits the swellability, solubility and reactivity of cellulose fibers during the production of regenerated textile fibers, nanocellulose, bioethanol, and many other value-added products. However, the ultrastructural assembly of cellulose elementary fibrils (EF) and matrix materials in one of the outer layers, i.e. S1-2 transition layer of wood cell wall, is far from being understood. Here, single-axis electron tomography on ultrathin spruce sections was applied to observe the three-dimensional (3D) structure of the S1-2 layer. The nanoscale geometries of the EFs were further quantitatively modeled through mathematical fitting of the tomographic subvolumes by suitable parametric space curves. The results showed that crisscross, bundled and parallel EF organizations are all present in this layer; the former two exhibit a denser structure. Several quantitative measures such as distances and angles were obtained for the analyzed structures. The result obtained in this study suggests that the S1-2 transition layer differs in structure than the principal cell wall layers. The structural differences and its possible role in wood cell wall have been discussed. These results will enhance our understanding of the swellability, accessibility and solubility of woody biomass for its conversion into the aforementioned value-added products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mehedi Reza
- Department of Applied Physics, Aalto University, P.O. Box 11100, FI-00076, Espoo, Finland
| | - Carlo Bertinetto
- Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems, Aalto University, P.O. Box 16300, FI-00076, Espoo, Finland
| | - Kavindra Kumar Kesari
- Department of Applied Physics, Aalto University, P.O. Box 11100, FI-00076, Espoo, Finland.
- Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems, Aalto University, P.O. Box 16300, FI-00076, Espoo, Finland.
| | - Peter Engelhardt
- Department of Applied Physics, Aalto University, P.O. Box 11100, FI-00076, Espoo, Finland
| | - Janne Ruokolainen
- Department of Applied Physics, Aalto University, P.O. Box 11100, FI-00076, Espoo, Finland.
| | - Tapani Vuorinen
- Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems, Aalto University, P.O. Box 16300, FI-00076, Espoo, Finland.
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Wang YX, Teng RM, Wang WL, Wang Y, Shen W, Zhuang J. Identification of genes revealed differential expression profiles and lignin accumulation during leaf and stem development in tea plant (Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze). PROTOPLASMA 2019; 256:359-370. [PMID: 30121729 DOI: 10.1007/s00709-018-1299-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2018] [Accepted: 08/13/2018] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Lignin is a complex aromatic heteropolymer that plays essential roles in mechanical support, water transport, and response to biotic and abiotic stresses. The tea plant is a leaf-type beverage crop, which serves as a resource for non-alcoholic beverage tea. The content and distribution of lignin in tea plant leaves seriously affect the quality of tea. However, the biosynthetic pathways of lignin remain to be characterized in the tea plant. In the present study, lignin accumulation was investigated in tea plant leaves and stems at three developmental stages. The lignin content continuously increased during leaf and stem development in both tea plant cultivars 'Fudingdabai' and 'Suchazao.' The lignin distribution and anatomical characteristics of the tea plant leaves coincided with lignin accumulation and showed that lignin is mainly distributed in the epidermis, xylem, and vascular bundle sheath. 'Suchazao' exhibits a low lignin content and lacks a vascular bundle sheath. Twelve genes encoding the enzymes involved in the lignin biosynthesis of tea plant were identified and included CsPAL, CsC4H, Cs4CL, CsHCT, CsC3H, CsCCoAOMT, CsCCR, CsCAD, CsF5H, CsCOMT, CsPER, and CsLAC. The expression profiling of lignin biosynthesis-related genes and analysis of lignin accumulation may help elaborate the regulatory mechanisms of lignin biosynthesis in tea plant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yong-Xin Wang
- Tea Science Research Institute, College of Horticulture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, China
| | - Rui-Min Teng
- Tea Science Research Institute, College of Horticulture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, China
| | - Wen-Li Wang
- Tea Science Research Institute, College of Horticulture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, China
| | - Ying Wang
- Tea Science Research Institute, College of Horticulture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, China
| | - Wei Shen
- Tea Science Research Institute, College of Horticulture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, China
| | - Jing Zhuang
- Tea Science Research Institute, College of Horticulture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, China.
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Singh V, Sergeeva L, Ligterink W, Aloni R, Zemach H, Doron-Faigenboim A, Yang J, Zhang P, Shabtai S, Firon N. Gibberellin Promotes Sweetpotato Root Vascular Lignification and Reduces Storage-Root Formation. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2019; 10:1320. [PMID: 31849998 PMCID: PMC6897044 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2019.01320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2019] [Accepted: 09/23/2019] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Sweetpotato yield depends on a change in the developmental fate of adventitious roots into storage-roots. The mechanisms underlying this developmental switch are still unclear. We examined the hypothesis claiming that regulation of root lignification determines storage-root formation. We show that application of the plant hormone gibberellin increased stem elongation and root gibberellin levels, while having inhibitory effects on root system parameters, decreasing lateral root number and length, and significantly reducing storage-root number and diameter. Furthermore, gibberellin enhanced root xylem development, caused increased lignin deposition, and, at the same time, decreased root starch accumulation. In accordance with these developmental effects, gibberellin application upregulated expression levels of sweetpotato orthologues of Arabidopsis vascular development regulators (IbNA075, IbVND7, and IbSND2) and of lignin biosynthesis genes (IbPAL, IbC4H, Ib4CL, IbCCoAOMT, and IbCAD), while downregulating starch biosynthesis genes (IbAGPase and IbGBSS) in the roots. Interestingly, gibberellin downregulated root expression levels of orthologues of the Arabidopsis BREVIPEDICELLUS transcription factor (IbKN2 and IbKN3), regulator of meristem maintenance. The results substantiate our hypothesis and mark gibberellin as an important player in regulation of sweetpotato root development, suggesting that increased fiber formation and lignification inhibit storage-root formation and yield. Taken together, our findings provide insight into the mechanisms underlying sweetpotato storage-root formation and provide a valuable database of genes for further research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vikram Singh
- Department of Vegetable and Field Crops, Institute of Plant Sciences, Agricultural Research Organization, The Volcani Center, Rishon LeZion, Israel
| | - Lidiya Sergeeva
- Laboratory of Plant Physiology, Department of Plant Sciences, Wageningen University, Wageningen, Netherlands
| | - Wilco Ligterink
- Laboratory of Plant Physiology, Department of Plant Sciences, Wageningen University, Wageningen, Netherlands
| | - Roni Aloni
- School of Plant Sciences and Food Security, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Hanita Zemach
- Department of Fruit Tree Sciences, Institute of Plant Sciences, Agricultural Research Organization, The Volcani Center, Rishon LeZion, Israel
| | - Adi Doron-Faigenboim
- Department of Vegetable and Field Crops, Institute of Plant Sciences, Agricultural Research Organization, The Volcani Center, Rishon LeZion, Israel
| | - Jun Yang
- Chenshan Plant Science Research Center, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai Chenshan Botanical Garden, Shanghai, China
| | - Peng Zhang
- Institute of Plant Physiology & Ecology, SIBS, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Sara Shabtai
- Department of Vegetable and Field Crops, Institute of Plant Sciences, Agricultural Research Organization, The Volcani Center, Rishon LeZion, Israel
| | - Nurit Firon
- Department of Vegetable and Field Crops, Institute of Plant Sciences, Agricultural Research Organization, The Volcani Center, Rishon LeZion, Israel
- *Correspondence: Nurit Firon,
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29
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Le Bris P, Wang Y, Barbereau C, Antelme S, Cézard L, Legée F, D’Orlando A, Dalmais M, Bendahmane A, Schuetz M, Samuels L, Lapierre C, Sibout R. Inactivation of LACCASE8 and LACCASE5 genes in Brachypodium distachyon leads to severe decrease in lignin content and high increase in saccharification yield without impacting plant integrity. BIOTECHNOLOGY FOR BIOFUELS 2019; 12:181. [PMID: 31338123 PMCID: PMC6628504 DOI: 10.1186/s13068-019-1525-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2019] [Accepted: 07/07/2019] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Dedicated lignocellulosic feedstock from grass crops for biofuel production is extensively increasing. However, the access to fermentable cell wall sugars by carbohydrate degrading enzymes is impeded by lignins. These complex polymers are made from reactive oxidized monolignols in the cell wall. Little is known about the laccase-mediated oxidation of monolignols in grasses, and inactivation of the monolignol polymerization mechanism might be a strategy to increase the yield of fermentable sugars. RESULTS LACCASE5 and LACCASE8 are inactivated in a Brachypodium double mutant. Relative to the wild type, the lignin content of extract-free mature culms is decreased by 20-30% and the saccharification yield is increased by 140%. Release of ferulic acid by mild alkaline hydrolysis is also 2.5-fold higher. Interfascicular fibers are mainly affected while integrity of vascular bundles is not impaired. Interestingly, there is no drastic impact of the double mutation on plant growth. CONCLUSION This work shows that two Brachypodium laccases with clearly identified orthologs in crops are involved in lignification of this model plant. Lignification in interfascicular fibers and metaxylem cells is partly uncoupled in Brachypodium. Orthologs of these laccases are promising targets for improving grass feedstock for cellulosic biofuel production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philippe Le Bris
- Institut Jean-Pierre Bourgin, INRA, AgroParisTech, CNRS, Université Paris-Saclay, Versailles, France
| | - Yin Wang
- Institut Jean-Pierre Bourgin, INRA, AgroParisTech, CNRS, Université Paris-Saclay, Versailles, France
| | - Clément Barbereau
- Institut Jean-Pierre Bourgin, INRA, AgroParisTech, CNRS, Université Paris-Saclay, Versailles, France
| | - Sébastien Antelme
- Institut Jean-Pierre Bourgin, INRA, AgroParisTech, CNRS, Université Paris-Saclay, Versailles, France
| | - Laurent Cézard
- Institut Jean-Pierre Bourgin, INRA, AgroParisTech, CNRS, Université Paris-Saclay, Versailles, France
| | - Frédéric Legée
- Institut Jean-Pierre Bourgin, INRA, AgroParisTech, CNRS, Université Paris-Saclay, Versailles, France
| | - Angelina D’Orlando
- UR1268 BIA (Biopolymères Interactions Assemblages), INRA, 44300 Nantes, France
| | - Marion Dalmais
- Institute of Plant Sciences Paris Saclay IPS2, CNRS, INRA, Université Paris-Sud, Université Evry, Université Paris-Saclay, Batiment 630, 91405 Orsay, France
- Institute of Plant Sciences Paris-Saclay IPS2, Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris-Cité, Bâtiment 630, 91405 Orsay, France
| | - Abdelhafid Bendahmane
- Institute of Plant Sciences Paris Saclay IPS2, CNRS, INRA, Université Paris-Sud, Université Evry, Université Paris-Saclay, Batiment 630, 91405 Orsay, France
- Institute of Plant Sciences Paris-Saclay IPS2, Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris-Cité, Bâtiment 630, 91405 Orsay, France
| | - Mathias Schuetz
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4 Canada
| | - Lacey Samuels
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4 Canada
| | - Catherine Lapierre
- Institut Jean-Pierre Bourgin, INRA, AgroParisTech, CNRS, Université Paris-Saclay, Versailles, France
| | - Richard Sibout
- Institut Jean-Pierre Bourgin, INRA, AgroParisTech, CNRS, Université Paris-Saclay, Versailles, France
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4 Canada
- UR1268 BIA (Biopolymères Interactions Assemblages), INRA, 44300 Nantes, France
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Donaldson LA, Cairns M, Hill SJ. Comparison of Micropore Distribution in Cell Walls of Softwood and Hardwood Xylem. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2018; 178:1142-1153. [PMID: 30217826 PMCID: PMC6236611 DOI: 10.1104/pp.18.00883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2018] [Accepted: 09/06/2018] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
The porosity of wood cell walls is of interest for both understanding xylem functionality and from a wood materials perspective. The movement of water in xylem generally occurs through the macroporous networks formed in softwood by bordered pits and in hardwood by the intervessel pits and open conduits created by vessels and perforation plates. In some situations, such as cavitated xylem, water can only move through the micropores that occur in lignified tracheid and fiber cell walls; however, these micropore networks are poorly understood. Here, we used molecular microscopy analysis of radiata pine (Pinus radiata) and red beech (Nothofagus fusca) to determine the distribution of micropores in the secondary walls and middle lamellae of tracheids and fibers in relation to cell wall composition. Using two different types of probe, we identified a greater porosity of secondary cell walls and a reduced porosity of the middle lamella. Areas of reduced porosity were observed in the outer regions of the secondary cell wall of both tracheids and fibers that appear unrelated to lignification or the distribution of cellulose, mannan, and xylan. Hardwood fiber cell walls were less lignified than those of softwood tracheids and showed greater accessibility to porosity probes. Vessel cell walls were comparable to those of fibers in terms of both porosity and lignification. Lignification is probably the primary determinant of cell wall porosity in xylem. The highly lignified middle lamella, and lumen surface, act as a barrier to probe movement and, therefore, water movement in both softwood and hardwood.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mathew Cairns
- Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington 6140, New Zealand
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31
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Donev E, Gandla ML, Jönsson LJ, Mellerowicz EJ. Engineering Non-cellulosic Polysaccharides of Wood for the Biorefinery. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2018; 9:1537. [PMID: 30405672 PMCID: PMC6206411 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2018.01537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2018] [Accepted: 09/28/2018] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Non-cellulosic polysaccharides constitute approximately one third of usable woody biomass for human exploitation. In contrast to cellulose, these substances are composed of several different types of unit monosaccharides and their backbones are substituted by various groups. Their structural diversity and recent examples of their modification in transgenic plants and mutants suggest they can be targeted for improving wood-processing properties, thereby facilitating conversion of wood in a biorefinery setting. Critical knowledge on their structure-function relationship is slowly emerging, although our understanding of molecular interactions responsible for observed phenomena is still incomplete. This review: (1) provides an overview of structural features of major non-cellulosic polysaccharides of wood, (2) describes the fate of non-cellulosic polysaccharides during biorefinery processing, (3) shows how the non-cellulosic polysaccharides impact lignocellulose processing focused on yields of either sugars or polymers, and (4) discusses outlooks for the improvement of tree species for biorefinery by modifying the structure of non-cellulosic polysaccharides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evgeniy Donev
- Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Umeå, Sweden
| | | | | | - Ewa J. Mellerowicz
- Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Umeå, Sweden
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32
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Lignin polymerization: how do plants manage the chemistry so well? Curr Opin Biotechnol 2018; 56:75-81. [PMID: 30359808 DOI: 10.1016/j.copbio.2018.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 134] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2018] [Revised: 09/05/2018] [Accepted: 10/03/2018] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The final step of lignin biosynthesis is the polymerization of monolignols in apoplastic cell wall domains. In this process, monolignols secreted by lignifying cells, or occasionally neighboring non-lignifying and/or other lignifying cells, are activated by cell-wall-localized oxidation systems, such as laccase/O2 and/or peroxidase/H2O2, for combinatorial radical coupling to make the final lignin polymers. Plants can precisely control when, where, and which types of lignin polymers are assembled at tissue and cellular levels, but do not control the polymers' exact chemical structures per se. Recent studies have begun to identify specific laccase and peroxidase proteins responsible for lignin polymerization in specific cell types and during different developmental stages. The coordination of polymerization machinery localization and monolignol supply is likely critical for the spatio-temporal patterning of lignin polymerization. Further advancement in this research area will continue to increase our capacity to manipulate lignin content/structure in biomass to meet our own biotechnological purposes.
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Jin K, Liu X, Wang K, Jiang Z, Tian G, Yang S, Shang L, Ma J. Imaging the dynamic deposition of cell wall polymer in xylem and phloem in Populus × euramericana. PLANTA 2018; 248:849-858. [PMID: 29938358 DOI: 10.1007/s00425-018-2931-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2018] [Accepted: 05/29/2018] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
Both G units and S units deposited in the whole lignification process of xylem fiber. The topochemical variations in newly formed xylem and phloem of Populus × euramericana were investigated by combined microscopic techniques. During xylem formation, earlier cell wall deposition in vessel and afterwards in the neighboring fiber was observed in situ. Raman images in xylem fiber emphasized that cell wall deposition was an ordered process which lignification started in cell corner following carbohydrates deposition. Higher deposition speed of carbohydrates was revealed at the beginning of the cell wall differentiation, and the syringyl (S) units deposition was more pronounced compared with guaiacyl (G) units at the earlier stage of lignification. The comparative analysis of cell wall composition in phloem fiber indicated that phloem formed earlier than xylem and the distribution of lignin monomers varied significantly with phloem fiber location. Furthermore, an interesting phenomenon was found that the outermost phloem fiber near the periderm displayed a multilayered structure with alternating broad and narrow layer, and the broad lamellae showed higher concentration of carbohydrates and S lignin. The cytological information including cell wall composition and lignin structure of xylem and phloem might be helpful to understand the wood growth progresses and facilitate utilization of woody plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kexia Jin
- Key Lab of Bamboo and Rattan Science & Technology, International Center for Bamboo and Rattan, Beijing, 100102, China
| | - Xinge Liu
- Key Lab of Bamboo and Rattan Science & Technology, International Center for Bamboo and Rattan, Beijing, 100102, China
| | - Kun Wang
- Key Lab of Bamboo and Rattan Science & Technology, International Center for Bamboo and Rattan, Beijing, 100102, China
| | - Zehui Jiang
- Key Lab of Bamboo and Rattan Science & Technology, International Center for Bamboo and Rattan, Beijing, 100102, China
| | - Genlin Tian
- Key Lab of Bamboo and Rattan Science & Technology, International Center for Bamboo and Rattan, Beijing, 100102, China
| | - Shumin Yang
- Key Lab of Bamboo and Rattan Science & Technology, International Center for Bamboo and Rattan, Beijing, 100102, China
| | - Lili Shang
- Key Lab of Bamboo and Rattan Science & Technology, International Center for Bamboo and Rattan, Beijing, 100102, China
| | - Jianfeng Ma
- Key Lab of Bamboo and Rattan Science & Technology, International Center for Bamboo and Rattan, Beijing, 100102, China.
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Que F, Wang GL, Feng K, Xu ZS, Wang F, Xiong AS. Hypoxia enhances lignification and affects the anatomical structure in hydroponic cultivation of carrot taproot. PLANT CELL REPORTS 2018; 37:1021-1032. [PMID: 29680943 DOI: 10.1007/s00299-018-2288-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2018] [Accepted: 04/12/2018] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Hypoxia enhances lignification of carrot root. Hypoxia stress was thought to be one of the major abiotic stresses that inhibiting the growth and development of higher plants. The genes encoding the plant alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH-P) were induced when suffering hypoxia. To investigate the impact of hypoxia on the carrot root growth, carrot plants were cultivated in the hydroponics with or without aeration. Morphological characteristics, anatomical structure, lignin content, and the expression profiles of DcADH-P genes and lignin biosynthesis-related genes were measured. Six DcADH-P genes were identified from the carrot genome. The expression profiles of only three (DcADH-P1, DcADH-P2, and DcADH-P3) genes could be detected and the other three (DcADH-P4, DcADH-P5, and DcADH-P6) could not be detected when carrot cultivated in the solution without aeration. In addition, carrot roots had more lignin content, aerenchyma and less fresh weight when cultivated in the solution without aeration. These results suggested that hypoxia could enhance the lignification and affect anatomical structure of the carrot root. However, the expression levels of the genes related to lignin biosynthesis were down-regulated under the hypoxia. The enhancement of lignification may be the consequence of the structure changes in the carrot root. Our work was potentially helpful for studying the effect of hypoxia on carrot growth and may provide useful information for carrot hydroponics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feng Que
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement, College of Horticulture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, China
| | - Guang-Long Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement, College of Horticulture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, China
| | - Kai Feng
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement, College of Horticulture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, China
| | - Zhi-Sheng Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement, College of Horticulture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, China
| | - Feng Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement, College of Horticulture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, China
| | - Ai-Sheng Xiong
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement, College of Horticulture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, China.
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Meents MJ, Watanabe Y, Samuels AL. The cell biology of secondary cell wall biosynthesis. ANNALS OF BOTANY 2018; 121:1107-1125. [PMID: 29415210 PMCID: PMC5946954 DOI: 10.1093/aob/mcy005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 133] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2017] [Accepted: 01/16/2018] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Secondary cell walls (SCWs) form the architecture of terrestrial plant biomass. They reinforce tracheary elements and strengthen fibres to permit upright growth and the formation of forest canopies. The cells that synthesize a strong, thick SCW around their protoplast must undergo a dramatic commitment to cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin production. SCOPE This review puts SCW biosynthesis in a cellular context, with the aim of integrating molecular biology and biochemistry with plant cell biology. While SCWs are deposited in diverse tissue and cellular contexts including in sclerenchyma (fibres and sclereids), phloem (fibres) and xylem (tracheids, fibres and vessels), the focus of this review reflects the fact that protoxylem tracheary elements have proven to be the most amenable experimental system in which to study the cell biology of SCWs. CONCLUSIONS SCW biosynthesis requires the co-ordination of plasma membrane cellulose synthases, hemicellulose production in the Golgi and lignin polymer deposition in the apoplast. At the plasma membrane where the SCW is deposited under the guidance of cortical microtubules, there is a high density of SCW cellulose synthase complexes producing cellulose microfibrils consisting of 18-24 glucan chains. These microfibrils are extruded into a cell wall matrix rich in SCW-specific hemicelluloses, typically xylan and mannan. The biosynthesis of eudicot SCW glucuronoxylan is taken as an example to illustrate the emerging importance of protein-protein complexes in the Golgi. From the trans-Golgi, trafficking of vesicles carrying hemicelluloses, cellulose synthases and oxidative enzymes is crucial for exocytosis of SCW components at the microtubule-rich cell membrane domains, producing characteristic SCW patterns. The final step of SCW biosynthesis is lignification, with monolignols secreted by the lignifying cell and, in some cases, by neighbouring cells as well. Oxidative enzymes such as laccases and peroxidases, embedded in the polysaccharide cell wall matrix, determine where lignin is deposited.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miranda J Meents
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Yoichiro Watanabe
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
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Moon S, Oo MM, Kim B, Koh HJ, Oh SA, Yi G, An G, Park SK, Jung KH. Genome-wide analyses of late pollen-preferred genes conserved in various rice cultivars and functional identification of a gene involved in the key processes of late pollen development. RICE (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2018; 11:28. [PMID: 29687350 PMCID: PMC5913055 DOI: 10.1186/s12284-018-0219-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2017] [Accepted: 04/04/2018] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Understanding late pollen development, including the maturation and pollination process, is a key component in maintaining crop yields. Transcriptome data obtained through microarray or RNA-seq technologies can provide useful insight into those developmental processes. Six series of microarray data from a public transcriptome database, the Gene Expression Omnibus of the National Center for Biotechnology Information, are related to anther and pollen development. RESULTS We performed a systematic and functional study across the rice genome of genes that are preferentially expressed in the late stages of pollen development, including maturation and germination. By comparing the transcriptomes of sporophytes and male gametes over time, we identified 627 late pollen-preferred genes that are conserved among japonica and indica rice cultivars. Functional classification analysis with a MapMan tool kit revealed a significant association between cell wall organization/metabolism and mature pollen grains. Comparative analysis of rice and Arabidopsis demonstrated that genes involved in cell wall modifications and the metabolism of major carbohydrates are unique to rice. We used the GUS reporter system to monitor the expression of eight of those genes. In addition, we evaluated the significance of our candidate genes, using T-DNA insertional mutant population and the CRISPR/Cas9 system. Mutants from T-DNA insertion and CRISPR/Cas9 systems of a rice gene encoding glycerophosphoryl diester phosphodiesterase are defective in their male gamete transfer. CONCLUSION Through the global analyses of the late pollen-preferred genes from rice, we found several biological features of these genes. First, biological process related to cell wall organization and modification is over-represented in these genes to support rapid tube growth. Second, comparative analysis of late pollen preferred genes between rice and Arabidopsis provide a significant insight on the evolutional disparateness in cell wall biogenesis and storage reserves of pollen. In addition, these candidates might be useful targets for future examinations of late pollen development, and will be a valuable resource for accelerating the understanding of molecular mechanisms for pollen maturation and germination processes in rice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sunok Moon
- Graduate School of Biotechnology and Crop Biotech Institute, Kyung Hee University, Yongin, 446-701, South Korea
| | - Moe Moe Oo
- School of Applied Biosciences, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, 702-701, South Korea
| | - Backki Kim
- Department of Plant Science, Research Institute of Agriculture and Life Sciences, and Plant Genomics and Breeding Institute, Seoul National University, Seoul, 151-921, South Korea
| | - Hee-Jong Koh
- Department of Plant Science, Research Institute of Agriculture and Life Sciences, and Plant Genomics and Breeding Institute, Seoul National University, Seoul, 151-921, South Korea
| | - Sung Aeong Oh
- School of Applied Biosciences, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, 702-701, South Korea
| | - Gihwan Yi
- College of Agriculture and Life Science, Daegu, 702-701, South Korea
| | - Gynheung An
- Graduate School of Biotechnology and Crop Biotech Institute, Kyung Hee University, Yongin, 446-701, South Korea
| | - Soon Ki Park
- School of Applied Biosciences, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, 702-701, South Korea.
| | - Ki-Hong Jung
- Graduate School of Biotechnology and Crop Biotech Institute, Kyung Hee University, Yongin, 446-701, South Korea.
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Heiner Z, Zeise I, Elbaum R, Kneipp J. Insight into plant cell wall chemistry and structure by combination of multiphoton microscopy with Raman imaging. JOURNAL OF BIOPHOTONICS 2018; 11:e201700164. [PMID: 29024576 DOI: 10.1002/jbio.201700164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2017] [Revised: 09/08/2017] [Accepted: 10/10/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Spontaneous Raman scattering microspectroscopy, second harmonic generation (SHG) and 2-photon excited fluorescence (2PF) were used in combination to characterize the morphology together with the chemical composition of the cell wall in native plant tissues. As the data obtained with unstained sections of Sorghum bicolor root and leaf tissues illustrate, nonresonant as well as pre-resonant Raman microscopy in combination with hyperspectral analysis reveals details about the distribution and composition of the major cell wall constituents. Multivariate analysis of the Raman data allows separation of different tissue regions, specifically the endodermis, xylem and lumen. The orientation of cellulose microfibrils is obtained from polarization-resolved SHG signals. Furthermore, 2-photon autofluorescence images can be used to image lignification. The combined compositional, morphological and orientational information in the proposed coupling of SHG, Raman imaging and 2PF presents an extension of existing vibrational microspectroscopic imaging and multiphoton microscopic approaches not only for plant tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zsuzsanna Heiner
- Department of Chemistry, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany
- SALSA School of Analytical Sciences Adlershof, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Ingrid Zeise
- Department of Chemistry, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Rivka Elbaum
- The Smith Institute of Plant Sciences and Genetics in Agriculture, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Janina Kneipp
- Department of Chemistry, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany
- SALSA School of Analytical Sciences Adlershof, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany
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Gonzalez E, Pitre FE, Pagé AP, Marleau J, Guidi Nissim W, St-Arnaud M, Labrecque M, Joly S, Yergeau E, Brereton NJB. Trees, fungi and bacteria: tripartite metatranscriptomics of a root microbiome responding to soil contamination. MICROBIOME 2018; 6:53. [PMID: 29562928 PMCID: PMC5863371 DOI: 10.1186/s40168-018-0432-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2016] [Accepted: 03/02/2018] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND One method for rejuvenating land polluted with anthropogenic contaminants is through phytoremediation, the reclamation of land through the cultivation of specific crops. The capacity for phytoremediation crops, such as Salix spp., to tolerate and even flourish in contaminated soils relies on a highly complex and predominantly cryptic interacting community of microbial life. METHODS Here, Illumina HiSeq 2500 sequencing and de novo transcriptome assembly were used to observe gene expression in washed Salix purpurea cv. 'Fish Creek' roots from trees pot grown in petroleum hydrocarbon-contaminated or non-contaminated soil. All 189,849 assembled contigs were annotated without a priori assumption as to sequence origin and differential expression was assessed. RESULTS The 839 contigs differentially expressed (DE) and annotated from S. purpurea revealed substantial increases in transcripts encoding abiotic stress response equipment, such as glutathione S-transferases, in roots of contaminated trees as well as the hallmarks of fungal interaction, such as SWEET2 (Sugars Will Eventually Be Exported Transporter). A total of 8252 DE transcripts were fungal in origin, with contamination conditions resulting in a community shift from Ascomycota to Basidiomycota genera. In response to contamination, 1745 Basidiomycota transcripts increased in abundance (the majority uniquely expressed in contaminated soil) including major monosaccharide transporter MST1, primary cell wall and lamella CAZy enzymes, and an ectomycorrhiza-upregulated exo-β-1,3-glucanase (GH5). Additionally, 639 DE polycistronic transcripts from an uncharacterised Enterobacteriaceae species were uniformly in higher abundance in contamination conditions and comprised a wide spectrum of genes cryptic under laboratory conditions but considered putatively involved in eukaryotic interaction, biofilm formation and dioxygenase hydrocarbon degradation. CONCLUSIONS Fungal gene expression, representing the majority of contigs assembled, suggests out-competition of white rot Ascomycota genera (dominated by Pyronema), a sometimes ectomycorrhizal (ECM) Ascomycota (Tuber) and ECM Basidiomycota (Hebeloma) by a poorly characterised putative ECM Basidiomycota due to contamination. Root and fungal expression involved transcripts encoding carbohydrate/amino acid (C/N) dialogue whereas bacterial gene expression included the apparatus necessary for biofilm interaction and direct reduction of contamination stress, a potential bacterial currency for a role in tripartite mutualism. Unmistakable within the metatranscriptome is the degree to which the landscape of rhizospheric biology, particularly the important but predominantly uncharacterised fungal genetics, is yet to be discovered.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Gonzalez
- Canadian Center for Computational Genomics, McGill University and Genome Quebec Innovation Center, Montréal, H3A 1A4, Canada
- Department of Human Genetics, McGill University, Montreal, H3A 1B1, Canada
| | - F E Pitre
- Institut de recherche en biologie végétale, University of Montreal, Montreal, QC, H1X 2B2, Canada
- Montreal Botanical Garden, Montreal, QC, H1X 2B2, Canada
| | - A P Pagé
- Aquatic and Crop Resource Development (ACRD), National Research Council Canada, Montréal, QC, H4P 2R2, Canada
| | - J Marleau
- Institut de recherche en biologie végétale, University of Montreal, Montreal, QC, H1X 2B2, Canada
| | - W Guidi Nissim
- Department of Agri-food and Environmental Science, University of Florence, Viale delle Idee, Sesto Fiorentino, FI, Italy
| | - M St-Arnaud
- Institut de recherche en biologie végétale, University of Montreal, Montreal, QC, H1X 2B2, Canada
- Montreal Botanical Garden, Montreal, QC, H1X 2B2, Canada
| | - M Labrecque
- Institut de recherche en biologie végétale, University of Montreal, Montreal, QC, H1X 2B2, Canada
- Montreal Botanical Garden, Montreal, QC, H1X 2B2, Canada
| | - S Joly
- Institut de recherche en biologie végétale, University of Montreal, Montreal, QC, H1X 2B2, Canada
- Montreal Botanical Garden, Montreal, QC, H1X 2B2, Canada
| | - E Yergeau
- Institut National de la Recherche Scientifique, Centre INRS-Institut Armand-Frappier, Laval, QC, Canada
| | - N J B Brereton
- Institut de recherche en biologie végétale, University of Montreal, Montreal, QC, H1X 2B2, Canada.
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Imaging and Spectroscopy of Natural Fluorophores in Pine Needles. PLANTS 2018; 7:plants7010010. [PMID: 29393922 PMCID: PMC5874599 DOI: 10.3390/plants7010010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2018] [Revised: 01/24/2018] [Accepted: 01/29/2018] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Many plant tissues fluoresce due to the natural fluorophores present in cell walls or within the cell protoplast or lumen. While lignin and chlorophyll are well-known fluorophores, other components are less well characterized. Confocal fluorescence microscopy of fresh or fixed vibratome-cut sections of radiata pine needles revealed the presence of suberin, lignin, ferulate, and flavonoids associated with cell walls as well as several different extractive components and chlorophyll within tissues. Comparison of needles in different physiological states demonstrated the loss of chlorophyll in both chlorotic and necrotic needles. Necrotic needles showed a dramatic change in the fluorescence of extractives within mesophyll cells from ultraviolet (UV) excited weak blue fluorescence to blue excited strong green fluorescence associated with tissue browning. Comparisons were made among fluorophores in terms of optimal excitation, relative brightness compared to lignin, and the effect of pH of mounting medium. Fluorophores in cell walls and extractives in lumens were associated with blue or green emission, compared to the red emission of chlorophyll. Autofluorescence is, therefore, a useful method for comparing the histology of healthy and diseased needles without the need for multiple staining techniques, potentially aiding visual screening of host resistance and disease progression in needle tissue.
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Zeise I, Heiner Z, Holz S, Joester M, Büttner C, Kneipp J. Raman Imaging of Plant Cell Walls in Sections of Cucumis sativus. PLANTS 2018; 7:plants7010007. [PMID: 29370089 PMCID: PMC5874596 DOI: 10.3390/plants7010007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2017] [Revised: 01/19/2018] [Accepted: 01/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Raman microspectra combine information on chemical composition of plant tissues with spatial information. The contributions from the building blocks of the cell walls in the Raman spectra of plant tissues can vary in the microscopic sub-structures of the tissue. Here, we discuss the analysis of 55 Raman maps of root, stem, and leaf tissues of Cucumis sativus, using different spectral contributions from cellulose and lignin in both univariate and multivariate imaging methods. Imaging based on hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) and principal component analysis (PCA) indicates different substructures in the xylem cell walls of the different tissues. Using specific signals from the cell wall spectra, analysis of the whole set of different tissue sections based on the Raman images reveals differences in xylem tissue morphology. Due to the specifics of excitation of the Raman spectra in the visible wavelength range (532 nm), which is, e.g., in resonance with carotenoid species, effects of photobleaching and the possibility of exploiting depletion difference spectra for molecular characterization in Raman imaging of plants are discussed. The reported results provide both, specific information on the molecular composition of cucumber tissue Raman spectra, and general directions for future imaging studies in plant tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ingrid Zeise
- Department of Chemistry, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Brook-Taylor-Str. 2, 12489 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Zsuzsanna Heiner
- Department of Chemistry, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Brook-Taylor-Str. 2, 12489 Berlin, Germany.
- School of Analytical Sciences Adlershof SALSA, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Albert-Einstein-Str. 5-9, 12489 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Sabine Holz
- Institute of Agricultural and Horticultural Sciences, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Lentzeallee 55/57, 14195 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Maike Joester
- Department of Chemistry, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Brook-Taylor-Str. 2, 12489 Berlin, Germany.
- BAM Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing, Richard-Willstatter-Straße 11, 12489 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Carmen Büttner
- Institute of Agricultural and Horticultural Sciences, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Lentzeallee 55/57, 14195 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Janina Kneipp
- Department of Chemistry, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Brook-Taylor-Str. 2, 12489 Berlin, Germany.
- School of Analytical Sciences Adlershof SALSA, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Albert-Einstein-Str. 5-9, 12489 Berlin, Germany.
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Guedes FTP, Laurans F, Quemener B, Assor C, Lainé-Prade V, Boizot N, Vigouroux J, Lesage-Descauses MC, Leplé JC, Déjardin A, Pilate G. Non-cellulosic polysaccharide distribution during G-layer formation in poplar tension wood fibers: abundance of rhamnogalacturonan I and arabinogalactan proteins but no evidence of xyloglucan. PLANTA 2017; 246:857-878. [PMID: 28699115 DOI: 10.1007/s00425-017-2737-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2017] [Accepted: 07/05/2017] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
RG-I and AGP, but not XG, are associated to the building of the peculiar mechanical properties of tension wood. Hardwood trees produce tension wood (TW) with specific mechanical properties to cope with environmental cues. Poplar TW fibers have an additional cell wall layer, the G-layer responsible for TW mechanical properties. We investigated, in two poplar hybrid species, the molecules potentially involved in the building of TW mechanical properties. First, we evaluated the distribution of the different classes of non-cellulosic polysaccharides during xylem fiber differentiation, using immunolocalization. In parallel, G-layers were isolated and their polysaccharide composition determined. These complementary approaches provided information on the occurrence of non-cellulosic polysaccharides during G-fiber differentiation. We found no evidence of the presence of xyloglucan (XG) in poplar G-layers, whereas arabinogalactan proteins (AGP) and rhamnogalacturonan type I pectins (RG-I) were abundant, with an apparent progressive loss of RG-I side chains during G-layer maturation. Similarly, the intensity of immunolabeling signals specific for glucomannans and glucuronoxylans varies during G-layer maturation. RG-I and AGP are best candidate matrix components to be responsible for TW mechanical properties.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Carole Assor
- BIA, INRA, 44316, Nantes, France
- IATE, INRA, 34060, Montpellier, France
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Wang GL, Que F, Xu ZS, Wang F, Xiong AS. Exogenous gibberellin enhances secondary xylem development and lignification in carrot taproot. PROTOPLASMA 2017; 254:839-848. [PMID: 27335006 DOI: 10.1007/s00709-016-0995-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2015] [Accepted: 06/08/2016] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Gibberellins (GAs) are important growth regulators involved in plant development processes. However, limited information is known about the relationship between GA and xylogenesis in carrots. In this study, carrot roots were treated with GA3. The effects of applied GA3 on root growth, xylem development, and lignin accumulation were then investigated. Results indicated that GA treatment dose-dependently inhibited carrot root growth. The cell wall significantly thickened in the xylem parenchyma. Autofluorescence analysis with ultraviolet (UV) excitation indicated that these cells became lignified because of long-term GA3 treatment. Moreover, lignin content increased in the roots, and the transcripts of lignin biosynthesis genes were altered in response to applied GA3. Our data indicate that GA may play important roles in xylem growth and lignification in carrot roots. Further studies shall focus on regulating plant lignification, which may be achieved by modifying GA levels within plant tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guang-Long Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement, College of Horticulture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, China
| | - Feng Que
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement, College of Horticulture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, China
| | - Zhi-Sheng Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement, College of Horticulture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, China
| | - Feng Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement, College of Horticulture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, China
| | - Ai-Sheng Xiong
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement, College of Horticulture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, China.
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A Lytic Polysaccharide Monooxygenase with Broad Xyloglucan Specificity from the Brown-Rot Fungus Gloeophyllum trabeum and Its Action on Cellulose-Xyloglucan Complexes. Appl Environ Microbiol 2016; 82:6557-6572. [PMID: 27590806 PMCID: PMC5086550 DOI: 10.1128/aem.01768-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2016] [Accepted: 08/25/2016] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Fungi secrete a set of glycoside hydrolases and lytic polysaccharide monooxygenases (LPMOs) to degrade plant polysaccharides. Brown-rot fungi, such as Gloeophyllum trabeum, tend to have few LPMOs, and information on these enzymes is scarce. The genome of G. trabeum encodes four auxiliary activity 9 (AA9) LPMOs (GtLPMO9s), whose coding sequences were amplified from cDNA. Due to alternative splicing, two variants of GtLPMO9A seem to be produced, a single-domain variant, GtLPMO9A-1, and a longer variant, GtLPMO9A-2, which contains a C-terminal domain comprising approximately 55 residues without a predicted function. We have overexpressed the phylogenetically distinct GtLPMO9A-2 in Pichia pastoris and investigated its properties. Standard analyses using high-performance anion-exchange chromatography–pulsed amperometric detection (HPAEC-PAD) and mass spectrometry (MS) showed that GtLPMO9A-2 is active on cellulose, carboxymethyl cellulose, and xyloglucan. Importantly, compared to other known xyloglucan-active LPMOs, GtLPMO9A-2 has broad specificity, cleaving at any position along the β-glucan backbone of xyloglucan, regardless of substitutions. Using dynamic viscosity measurements to compare the hemicellulolytic action of GtLPMO9A-2 to that of a well-characterized hemicellulolytic LPMO, NcLPMO9C from Neurospora crassa revealed that GtLPMO9A-2 is more efficient in depolymerizing xyloglucan. These measurements also revealed minor activity on glucomannan that could not be detected by the analysis of soluble products by HPAEC-PAD and MS and that was lower than the activity of NcLPMO9C. Experiments with copolymeric substrates showed an inhibitory effect of hemicellulose coating on cellulolytic LPMO activity and did not reveal additional activities of GtLPMO9A-2. These results provide insight into the LPMO potential of G. trabeum and provide a novel sensitive method, a measurement of dynamic viscosity, for monitoring LPMO activity. IMPORTANCE Currently, there are only a few methods available to analyze end products of lytic polysaccharide monooxygenase (LPMO) activity, the most common ones being liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry. Here, we present an alternative and sensitive method based on measurement of dynamic viscosity for real-time continuous monitoring of LPMO activity in the presence of water-soluble hemicelluloses, such as xyloglucan. We have used both these novel and existing analytical methods to characterize a xyloglucan-active LPMO from a brown-rot fungus. This enzyme, GtLPMO9A-2, differs from previously characterized LPMOs in having broad substrate specificity, enabling almost random cleavage of the xyloglucan backbone. GtLPMO9A-2 acts preferentially on free xyloglucan, suggesting a preference for xyloglucan chains that tether cellulose fibers together. The xyloglucan-degrading potential of GtLPMO9A-2 suggests a role in decreasing wood strength at the initial stage of brown rot through degradation of the primary cell wall.
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Zhang M, Chavan RR, Smith BG, McArdle BH, Harris PJ. Tracheid cell-wall structures and locations of (1 → 4)-β-D-galactans and (1 → 3)-β-D-glucans in compression woods of radiata pine (Pinus radiata D. Don). BMC PLANT BIOLOGY 2016; 16:194. [PMID: 27604684 PMCID: PMC5015220 DOI: 10.1186/s12870-016-0884-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2016] [Accepted: 08/25/2016] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Compression wood (CW) forms on the underside of tilted stems of coniferous gymnosperms and opposite wood (OW) on the upperside. The tracheid walls of these wood types differ structurally and chemically. Although much is known about the most severe form of CW, severe CW (SCW), mild CWs (MCWs), also occur, but less is known about them. In this study, tracheid wall structures and compositions of two grades of MCWs (1 and 2) and SCW were investigated and compared with OW in slightly tilted radiata pine (Pinus radiata) stems. RESULTS The four wood types were identified by the distribution of lignin in their tracheid walls. Only the tracheid walls of OW and MCW1 had a S3 layer and this was thin in MCW1. The tracheid walls of only SCW had a S2 layer with helical cavities in the inner region (S2i). Using immunomicroscopy, (1 → 4)-β-D-galactans and (1 → 3)-β-D-glucans were detected in the tracheid walls of all CWs, but in only trace amounts in OW. The (1 → 4)-β-D-galactans were located in the outer region of the S2 layer, whereas the (1 → 3)-β-D-glucans were in the inner S2i region. The areas and intensities of labelling increased with CW severity. The antibody for (1 → 4)-β-D-galactans was also used to identify the locations and relative amounts of these galactans in whole stem cross sections based on the formation of an insoluble dye. Areas containing the four wood types were clearly differentiated depending on colour intensity. The neutral monosaccharide compositions of the non-cellulosic polysaccharides of these wood types were determined on small, well defined discs, and showed the proportion of galactose was higher for CWs and increased with severity. CONCLUSION The presence of an S3 wall layer is a marker for very MCW and the presence of helical cavities in the S2 wall layer for SCW. The occurrence and proportions of (1 → 4)-β-D-galactans and (1 → 3)-β-D-glucans can be used as markers for CW and its severity. The proportions of galactose were consistent with the labelling results for (1 → 4)-β-D-galactans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miao Zhang
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Auckland, Private Bag 92019, Auckland Mail Centre, Auckland, 1142 New Zealand
| | - Ramesh R. Chavan
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Auckland, Private Bag 92019, Auckland Mail Centre, Auckland, 1142 New Zealand
| | - Bronwen G. Smith
- School of Chemical Sciences, The University of Auckland, Private Bag 92019, Auckland Mail Centre, Auckland, 1142 New Zealand
| | - Brian H. McArdle
- Department of Statistics, The University of Auckland, Private Bag 92019, Auckland Mail Centre, Auckland, 1142 New Zealand
| | - Philip J. Harris
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Auckland, Private Bag 92019, Auckland Mail Centre, Auckland, 1142 New Zealand
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Whitehill JGA, Henderson H, Schuetz M, Skyba O, Yuen MMS, King J, Samuels AL, Mansfield SD, Bohlmann J. Histology and cell wall biochemistry of stone cells in the physical defence of conifers against insects. PLANT, CELL & ENVIRONMENT 2016; 39:1646-1661. [PMID: 26474726 DOI: 10.1111/pce.12654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2015] [Revised: 09/28/2015] [Accepted: 09/29/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Conifers possess an array of physical and chemical defences against stem-boring insects. Stone cells provide a physical defence associated with resistance against bark beetles and weevils. In Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis), abundance of stone cells in the cortex of apical shoots is positively correlated with resistance to white pine weevil (Pissodes strobi). We identified histological, biochemical and molecular differences in the stone cell phenotype of weevil resistant (R) or susceptible (S) Sitka spruce genotypes. R trees displayed significantly higher quantities of cortical stone cells near the apical shoot node, the primary site for weevil feeding. Lignin, cellulose, xylan and mannan were the most abundant components of stone cell secondary walls, respectively. Lignin composition of stone cells isolated from R trees contained a higher percentage of G-lignin compared with S trees. Transcript profiling revealed higher transcript abundance in the R genotype of coumarate 3-hydroxylase, a key monolignol biosynthetic gene. Developing stone cells in current year apical shoots incorporated fluorescent-tagged monolignol into the secondary cell wall, while mature stone cells of previous year apical shoots did not. Stone cell development is an ephemeral process, and fortification of shoot tips in R trees is an effective strategy against insect feeding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justin G A Whitehill
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, 2185 East Mall, Vancouver, BC, Canada, V6T 1Z4
| | - Hannah Henderson
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, 2185 East Mall, Vancouver, BC, Canada, V6T 1Z4
| | - Mathias Schuetz
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, 6270 University Boulevard, Vancouver, BC, Canada, V6T 1Z4
| | - Oleksandr Skyba
- Department of Wood Science, University of British Columbia, 2424 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC, Canada, V6T 1Z4
| | - Macaire Man Saint Yuen
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, 2185 East Mall, Vancouver, BC, Canada, V6T 1Z4
| | - John King
- British Columbia Ministry of Forests, Lands, and Natural Resource Operations, Victoria, BC, Canada, V8W 9C2
| | - A Lacey Samuels
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, 6270 University Boulevard, Vancouver, BC, Canada, V6T 1Z4
| | - Shawn D Mansfield
- Department of Wood Science, University of British Columbia, 2424 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC, Canada, V6T 1Z4
| | - Jörg Bohlmann
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, 2185 East Mall, Vancouver, BC, Canada, V6T 1Z4
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, 6270 University Boulevard, Vancouver, BC, Canada, V6T 1Z4
- Department of Forest and Conservation Sciences, University of British Columbia, 2424 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC, Canada, V6T 1Z4
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Sorieul M, Dickson A, Hill SJ, Pearson H. Plant Fibre: Molecular Structure and Biomechanical Properties, of a Complex Living Material, Influencing Its Deconstruction towards a Biobased Composite. MATERIALS 2016; 9:ma9080618. [PMID: 28773739 PMCID: PMC5509024 DOI: 10.3390/ma9080618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2016] [Revised: 07/14/2016] [Accepted: 07/15/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Plant cell walls form an organic complex composite material that fulfils various functions. The hierarchical structure of this material is generated from the integration of its elementary components. This review provides an overview of wood as a composite material followed by its deconstruction into fibres that can then be incorporated into biobased composites. Firstly, the fibres are defined, and their various origins are discussed. Then, the organisation of cell walls and their components are described. The emphasis is on the molecular interactions of the cellulose microfibrils, lignin and hemicelluloses in planta. Hemicelluloses of diverse species and cell walls are described. Details of their organisation in the primary cell wall are provided, as understanding of the role of hemicellulose has recently evolved and is likely to affect our perception and future study of their secondary cell wall homologs. The importance of the presence of water on wood mechanical properties is also discussed. These sections provide the basis for understanding the molecular arrangements and interactions of the components and how they influence changes in fibre properties once isolated. A range of pulping processes can be used to individualise wood fibres, but these can cause damage to the fibres. Therefore, issues relating to fibre production are discussed along with the dispersion of wood fibres during extrusion. The final section explores various ways to improve fibres obtained from wood.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Alan Dickson
- Scion, Private Bag 3020, Rotorua 3046, New Zealand.
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Hiraide H, Yoshida M, Sato S, Yamamoto H. In situ detection of laccase activity and immunolocalisation of a compression-wood-specific laccase (CoLac1) in differentiating xylem of Chamaecyparis obtusa. FUNCTIONAL PLANT BIOLOGY : FPB 2016; 43:542-552. [PMID: 32480484 DOI: 10.1071/fp16044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2016] [Accepted: 04/13/2016] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The secondary cell wall of compression wood tracheids has a highly lignified region (S2L) in its outermost portion. To better understand the mechanism of S2L formation, we focussed on the activity of laccase (a monolignol oxidase) and performed in situ studies of this enzyme in differentiating compression wood. Staining of differentiating compression wood demonstrated that laccase activity began in all cell wall layers before the onset of lignification. We detected no activity of peroxidase (another monolignol oxidase) in any cell wall layer. Thus, laccase likely plays the major role in monolignol oxidisation during compression wood differentiation. Laccase activity was higher in the S2L region than in other secondary wall regions, suggesting that this enzyme was responsible for the high lignin concentration in this region of the cell wall. Immunolabelling demonstrated the expression of a compression-wood-specific laccase (CoLac1) immediately following the onset of secondary wall thickening, this enzyme was localised to the S2L region, whereas much less abundant in the S1 layer or inner S2 layer. Thus, the CoLac1 protein is most likely localised to the outer part of S2 and responsible for the high lignin concentration in the S2L region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hideto Hiraide
- Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciences, Nagoya University, Nagoya 464-8601, Japan
| | - Masato Yoshida
- Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciences, Nagoya University, Nagoya 464-8601, Japan
| | - Saori Sato
- Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciences, Nagoya University, Nagoya 464-8601, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Yamamoto
- Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciences, Nagoya University, Nagoya 464-8601, Japan
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Zhou X, Broadbelt L, Vinu R. Mechanistic Understanding of Thermochemical Conversion of Polymers and Lignocellulosic Biomass. THERMOCHEMICAL PROCESS ENGINEERING 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.ache.2016.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
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Pattathil S, Ingwers MW, Victoriano OL, Kandemkavil S, McGuire MA, Teskey RO, Aubrey DP. Cell Wall Ultrastructure of Stem Wood, Roots, and Needles of a Conifer Varies in Response to Moisture Availability. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2016; 7:882. [PMID: 27446114 PMCID: PMC4919352 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2016.00882] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2016] [Accepted: 06/04/2016] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
The composition, integrity, and architecture of the macromolecular matrix of cell walls, collectively referred to as cell wall ultrastructure, exhibits variation across species and organs and among cell types within organs. Indirect approaches have suggested that modifications to cell wall ultrastructure occur in response to abiotic stress; however, modifications have not been directly observed. Glycome profiling was used to study cell wall ultrastructure by examining variation in composition and extractability of non-cellulosic glycans in cell walls of stem wood, roots, and needles of loblolly pine saplings exposed to high and low soil moisture. Soil moisture influenced physiological processes and the overall composition and extractability of cell wall components differed as a function of soil moisture treatments. The strongest response of cell wall ultrastructure to soil moisture was increased extractability of pectic backbone epitopes in the low soil moisture treatment. The higher abundance of these pectic backbone epitopes in the oxalate extract indicate that the loosening of cell wall pectic components could be associated with the release of pectic signals as a stress response. The increased extractability of pectic backbone epitopes in response to low soil moisture availability was more pronounced in stem wood than in roots or needles. Additional responses to low soil moisture availability were observed in lignin-associated carbohydrates released in chlorite extracts of stem wood, including an increased abundance of pectic arabinogalactan epitopes. Overall, these results indicate that cell walls of loblolly pine organs undergo changes in their ultrastructural composition and extractability as a response to soil moisture availability and that cell walls of the stem wood are more responsive to low soil moisture availability compared to cell walls of roots and needles. To our knowledge, this is the first direct evidence, delineated by glycomic analyses, that abiotic stress affects cell wall ultrastructure. This study is also unique in that glycome profiling of pine needles has never before been reported.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sivakumar Pattathil
- Complex Carbohydrate Research Center, University of GeorgiaAthens, GA, USA
- *Correspondence: Sivakumar Pattathil
| | - Miles W. Ingwers
- Daniel B. Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of GeorgiaAthens, GA, USA
| | | | - Sindhu Kandemkavil
- Complex Carbohydrate Research Center, University of GeorgiaAthens, GA, USA
| | - Mary Anne McGuire
- Daniel B. Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of GeorgiaAthens, GA, USA
| | - Robert O. Teskey
- Daniel B. Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of GeorgiaAthens, GA, USA
| | - Doug P. Aubrey
- Daniel B. Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of GeorgiaAthens, GA, USA
- Savannah River Ecology Laboratory, University of GeorgiaAiken, SC, USA
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