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Kajiura H, Hiwasa-Tanase K, Ezura H, Fujiyama K. Effect of fruit maturation on N-glycosylation of plant-derived native and recombinant miraculin. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY : PPB 2022; 178:70-79. [PMID: 35276597 DOI: 10.1016/j.plaphy.2022.02.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2021] [Revised: 02/26/2022] [Accepted: 02/27/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Miracle fruit, Synsepalum dulcificum, produces a unique taste-modifying protein, miraculin (MIR), which has an attractive potential for commercial application as a novel low-calorie sweetener. To establish a stable supply system for MIR, a previous study established a platform for recombinant MIR (rMIR) production in tomato plants and demonstrated that native miraculin from miracle fruit (nMIR) and rMIR were almost identical in their protein modifications with N-glycan. However, neither N-glycosylation nor the influence of fruit maturation on the structural changes of N-glycan have been fully characterized in detail. Here, with a focus on N-glycosylation and the contribution of fruit maturation to N-glycan, we reanalyzed the N-glycosylation of the natural maturation stages of nMIR and rMIR, and then compared the N-glycan structures on MIRs prepared from the fruit at two different maturation stages. The detailed peptide mapping and N-glycosylation analysis of MIRs provided evidence that MIRs have variants, which were derived mainly from the differences in the N-glycan structure in nMIR and the N-glycosylation in rMIR and not from the cleavage of the peptide backbone. N-Glycan analysis of MIRs from the maturation stage of fruits demonstrated that N-glycan structures were similar among nMIRs and rMIRs at every maturation stage. These results indicated that the heterogeneously expressed rMIRs had the same characteristics in post-translational modifications, especially N-glycosylation and N-glycan structures, throughout the maturation stages. This study demonstrated the potential of recombinant protein expressed in tomato plants and paves the way for the commercial use of rMIR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroyuki Kajiura
- International Center for Biotechnology, Osaka University, 2-1 Yamada-oka, Suita-shi, Osaka, 565, Japan; Institute for Open and Transdisciplinary Research Initiatives (OTRI), Osaka University, 2-1 Yamada-oka, Suita-shi, Osaka, 565-0871, Japan.
| | - Kyoko Hiwasa-Tanase
- Faculty of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8572, Japan; Tsukuba-Plant Innovation Research Center, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8572, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Ezura
- Faculty of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8572, Japan; Tsukuba-Plant Innovation Research Center, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8572, Japan
| | - Kazuhito Fujiyama
- International Center for Biotechnology, Osaka University, 2-1 Yamada-oka, Suita-shi, Osaka, 565, Japan; Institute for Open and Transdisciplinary Research Initiatives (OTRI), Osaka University, 2-1 Yamada-oka, Suita-shi, Osaka, 565-0871, Japan; Osaka University Cooperative Research Station in Southeast Asia (OU:CRS), Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
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2
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Strasser R. Recent Developments in Deciphering the Biological Role of Plant Complex N-Glycans. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2022; 13:897549. [PMID: 35557740 PMCID: PMC9085483 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2022.897549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2022] [Accepted: 04/06/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Asparagine (N)-linked protein glycosylation is a ubiquitous co- and posttranslational modification which has a huge impact on the biogenesis and function of proteins and consequently on the development, growth, and physiology of organisms. In mammals, N-glycan processing carried out by Golgi-resident glycosidases and glycosyltransferases creates a number of structurally diverse N-glycans with specific roles in many different biological processes. In plants, complex N-glycan modifications like the attachment of β1,2-xylose, core α1,3-fucose, or the Lewis A-type structures are evolutionary highly conserved, but their biological function is poorly known. Here, I highlight recent developments that contribute to a better understanding of these conserved glycoprotein modifications and discuss future directions to move the field forward.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Strasser
- Department of Applied Genetics and Cell Biology, Institute of Plant Biotechnology and Cell Biology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
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3
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Chiu YTE, Choi CHJ. Enabling Transgenic Plant Cell–Derived Biomedicines with Nanotechnology. ADVANCED NANOBIOMED RESEARCH 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/anbr.202000028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Yee Ting Elaine Chiu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering The Chinese University of Hong Kong Shatin New Territories Hong Kong
| | - Chung Hang Jonathan Choi
- Department of Biomedical Engineering The Chinese University of Hong Kong Shatin New Territories Hong Kong
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4
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Ramirez-Rodriguez EA, Heazlewood JL. Enrichment of N-Linked Glycopeptides and Their Identification by Complementary Fragmentation Techniques. METHODS IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY (CLIFTON, N.J.) 2020; 2139:225-240. [PMID: 32462590 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-0528-8_17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
N-linked glycans are a ubiquitous posttranslational modification and are essential for correct protein folding in the endoplasmic reticulum of plants. However, this likely represents a narrow functional role for the diverse array of glycan structures currently associated with N-glycoproteins in plants. The identification of N-linked glycosylation sites and their structural characterization by mass spectrometry remains challenging due to their size, relative abundance, structural heterogeneity, and polarity. Current proteomic workflows are not optimized for the enrichment, identification and characterization of N-glycopeptides. Here we describe a detailed analytical procedure employing hydrophilic interaction chromatography enrichment, high-resolution tandem mass spectrometry employing complementary fragmentation techniques (higher-energy collisional dissociation and electron-transfer dissociation) and a data analytics workflow to produce an unbiased high confidence N-glycopeptide profile from plant samples.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Joshua L Heazlewood
- School of BioSciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia.
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5
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Tjondro HC, Loke I, Chatterjee S, Thaysen-Andersen M. Human protein paucimannosylation: cues from the eukaryotic kingdoms. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2019; 94:2068-2100. [PMID: 31410980 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2018] [Revised: 07/10/2019] [Accepted: 07/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Paucimannosidic proteins (PMPs) are bioactive glycoproteins carrying truncated α- or β-mannosyl-terminating asparagine (N)-linked glycans widely reported across the eukaryotic domain. Our understanding of human PMPs remains limited, despite findings documenting their existence and association with human disease glycobiology. This review comprehensively surveys the structures, biosynthetic routes and functions of PMPs across the eukaryotic kingdoms with the aim of synthesising an improved understanding on the role of protein paucimannosylation in human health and diseases. Convincing biochemical, glycoanalytical and biological data detail a vast structural heterogeneity and fascinating tissue- and subcellular-specific expression of PMPs within invertebrates and plants, often comprising multi-α1,3/6-fucosylation and β1,2-xylosylation amongst other glycan modifications and non-glycan substitutions e.g. O-methylation. Vertebrates and protists express less-heterogeneous PMPs typically only comprising variable core fucosylation of bi- and trimannosylchitobiose core glycans. In particular, the Manα1,6Manβ1,4GlcNAc(α1,6Fuc)β1,4GlcNAcβAsn glycan (M2F) decorates various human neutrophil proteins reportedly displaying bioactivity and structural integrity demonstrating that they are not degradation products. Less-truncated paucimannosidic glycans (e.g. M3F) are characteristic glycosylation features of proteins expressed by human cancer and stem cells. Concertedly, these observations suggest the involvement of human PMPs in processes related to innate immunity, tumorigenesis and cellular differentiation. The absence of human PMPs in diverse bodily fluids studied under many (patho)physiological conditions suggests extravascular residence and points to localised functions of PMPs in peripheral tissues. Absence of PMPs in Fungi indicates that paucimannosylation is common, but not universally conserved, in eukaryotes. Relative to human PMPs, the expression of PMPs in plants, invertebrates and protists is more tissue-wide and constitutive yet, similar to their human counterparts, PMP expression remains regulated by the physiology of the producing organism and PMPs evidently serve essential functions in development, cell-cell communication and host-pathogen/symbiont interactions. In most PMP-producing organisms, including humans, the N-acetyl-β-hexosaminidase isoenzymes and linkage-specific α-mannosidases are glycoside hydrolases critical for generating PMPs via N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase I (GnT-I)-dependent and GnT-I-independent truncation pathways. However, the identity and structure of many species-specific PMPs in eukaryotes, their biosynthetic routes, strong tissue- and development-specific expression, and diverse functions are still elusive. Deep exploration of these PMP features involving, for example, the characterisation of endogenous PMP-recognising lectins across a variety of healthy and N-acetyl-β-hexosaminidase-deficient human tissue types and identification of microbial adhesins reactive to human PMPs, are amongst the many tasks required for enhanced insight into the glycobiology of human PMPs. In conclusion, the literature supports the notion that PMPs are significant, yet still heavily under-studied biomolecules in human glycobiology that serve essential functions and create structural heterogeneity not dissimilar to other human N-glycoprotein types. Human PMPs should therefore be recognised as bioactive glycoproteins that are distinctly different from the canonical N-glycoprotein classes and which warrant a more dedicated focus in glycobiological research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harry C Tjondro
- Department of Molecular Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales, 2109, Australia
| | - Ian Loke
- Department of Molecular Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales, 2109, Australia.,Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117543, Singapore
| | - Sayantani Chatterjee
- Department of Molecular Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales, 2109, Australia
| | - Morten Thaysen-Andersen
- Department of Molecular Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales, 2109, Australia
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Glyco-Engineering of Plant-Based Expression Systems. ADVANCES IN BIOCHEMICAL ENGINEERING/BIOTECHNOLOGY 2018; 175:137-166. [PMID: 30069741 DOI: 10.1007/10_2018_76] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Most secreted proteins in eukaryotes are glycosylated, and after a number of common biosynthesis steps the glycan structures mature in a species-dependent manner. Therefore, human therapeutic proteins produced in plants often carry plant-like rather than human-like glycans, which can affect protein stability, biological function, and immunogenicity. The glyco-engineering of plant-based expression systems began as a strategy to eliminate plant-like glycans and produce human proteins with authentic or at least compatible glycan structures. The precise replication of human glycans is challenging, owing to the absence of a pathway in plants for the synthesis of sialylated proteins and the necessary precursors, but this can now be achieved by the coordinated expression of multiple human enzymes. Although the research community has focused on the removal of plant glycans and their replacement with human counterparts, the presence of plant glycans on proteins can also provide benefits, such as boosting the immunogenicity of some vaccines, facilitating the interaction between therapeutic proteins and their receptors, and increasing the efficacy of antibody effector functions. Graphical Abstract Typical structures of native mammalian and plant glycans with symbols indicating sugar residues identified by their short form and single-letter codes. Both glycans contain fucose, albeit with different linkages.
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7
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Zeng W, Ford KL, Bacic A, Heazlewood JL. N-linked Glycan Micro-heterogeneity in Glycoproteins of Arabidopsis. Mol Cell Proteomics 2017; 17:413-421. [PMID: 29237727 DOI: 10.1074/mcp.ra117.000165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2017] [Revised: 11/21/2017] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
N-glycosylation is one of the most common protein post-translational modifications in eukaryotes and has a relatively conserved core structure between fungi, animals and plants. In plants, the biosynthesis of N-glycans has been extensively studied with all the major biosynthetic enzymes characterized. However, few studies have applied advanced mass spectrometry to profile intact plant N-glycopeptides. In this study, we use hydrophilic enrichment, high-resolution tandem mass spectrometry with complementary and triggered fragmentation to profile Arabidopsis N-glycopeptides from microsomal membranes of aerial tissues. A total of 492 N-glycosites were identified from 324 Arabidopsis proteins with extensive N-glycan structural heterogeneity revealed through 1110 N-glycopeptides. To demonstrate the precision of the approach, we also profiled N-glycopeptides from the mutant (xylt) of β-1,2-xylosyltransferase, an enzyme in the N-glycan biosynthetic pathway. This analysis represents the most comprehensive and unbiased collection of Arabidopsis N-glycopeptides revealing an unsurpassed level of detail on the micro-heterogeneity present in N-glycoproteins of Arabidopsis. Data are available via ProteomeXchange with identifier PXD006270.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Zeng
- From the ‡ARC Centre of Excellence in Plant Cell Walls, School of BioSciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC 3010, Australia.,§Sino-Australia Plant Cell Wall Research Centre, State Key Laboratory of Subtropical Silviculture, School of Forestry and Biotechnology, Zhejiang A&F University, Lin'an, China
| | - Kristina L Ford
- From the ‡ARC Centre of Excellence in Plant Cell Walls, School of BioSciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Antony Bacic
- From the ‡ARC Centre of Excellence in Plant Cell Walls, School of BioSciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Joshua L Heazlewood
- From the ‡ARC Centre of Excellence in Plant Cell Walls, School of BioSciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC 3010, Australia; .,¶Joint BioEnergy Institute, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94702
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8
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Ghahremani M, Stigter KA, Plaxton W. Extraction and Characterization of Extracellular Proteins and Their Post-Translational Modifications from Arabidopsis thaliana Suspension Cell Cultures and Seedlings: A Critical Review. Proteomes 2016; 4:E25. [PMID: 28248235 PMCID: PMC5217358 DOI: 10.3390/proteomes4030025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2016] [Revised: 08/25/2016] [Accepted: 08/26/2016] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Proteins secreted by plant cells into the extracellular space, consisting of the cell wall, apoplastic fluid, and rhizosphere, play crucial roles during development, nutrient acquisition, and stress acclimation. However, isolating the full range of secreted proteins has proven difficult, and new strategies are constantly evolving to increase the number of proteins that can be detected and identified. In addition, the dynamic nature of the extracellular proteome presents the further challenge of identifying and characterizing the post-translational modifications (PTMs) of secreted proteins, particularly glycosylation and phosphorylation. Such PTMs are common and important regulatory modifications of proteins, playing a key role in many biological processes. This review explores the most recent methods in isolating and characterizing the plant extracellular proteome with a focus on the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana, highlighting the current challenges yet to be overcome. Moreover, the crucial role of protein PTMs in cell wall signalling, development, and plant responses to biotic and abiotic stress is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mina Ghahremani
- Department of Biology, Queen's University, Kingston, ON K7L 3N6, Canada.
| | - Kyla A Stigter
- Department of Biology, Queen's University, Kingston, ON K7L 3N6, Canada.
| | - William Plaxton
- Department of Biology, Queen's University, Kingston, ON K7L 3N6, Canada.
- Department of Biomedical and Molecular Sciences, Queen's University, Kingston, ON K7L 3N6, Canada.
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9
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Madeira LM, Szeto TH, Henquet M, Raven N, Runions J, Huddleston J, Garrard I, Drake PMW, Ma JKC. High-yield production of a human monoclonal IgG by rhizosecretion in hydroponic tobacco cultures. PLANT BIOTECHNOLOGY JOURNAL 2016; 14:615-24. [PMID: 26038982 DOI: 10.1111/pbi.12407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2015] [Revised: 04/28/2015] [Accepted: 04/29/2015] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Rhizosecretion of recombinant pharmaceuticals from in vitro hydroponic transgenic plant cultures is a simple, low cost, reproducible and controllable production method. Here, we demonstrate the application and adaptation of this manufacturing platform to a human antivitronectin IgG1 monoclonal antibody (mAb) called M12. The rationale for specific growth medium additives was established by phenotypic analysis of root structure and by LC-ESI-MS/MS profiling of the total protein content profile of the hydroponic medium. Through a combination of optimization approaches, mAb yields in hydroponic medium reached 46 μg/mL in 1 week, the highest figure reported for a recombinant mAb in a plant secretion-based system to date. The rhizosecretome was determined to contain 104 proteins, with the mAb heavy and light chains the most abundant. This enabled evaluation of a simple, scalable extraction and purification protocol and demonstration that only minimal processing was necessary prior to protein A affinity chromatography. MALDI-TOF MS revealed that purified mAb contained predominantly complex-type plant N-glycans, in three major glycoforms. The binding of M12 purified from hydroponic medium to vitronectin was comparable to its Chinese hamster ovary (CHO)-derived counterpart. This study demonstrates that in vitro hydroponic cultivation coupled with recombinant protein rhizosecretion can be a practical, low-cost production platform for monoclonal antibodies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luisa M Madeira
- The Hotung Molecular Immunology Unit, Institute for Infection and Immunity, St. George's University of London, London, UK
| | - Tim H Szeto
- The Hotung Molecular Immunology Unit, Institute for Infection and Immunity, St. George's University of London, London, UK
| | - Maurice Henquet
- Plant Research International, Wageningen University and Research Centre, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Nicole Raven
- Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology (IME), Aachen, Germany
| | - John Runions
- Department of Biological and Medical Sciences - Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, UK
| | - Jon Huddleston
- Brunel Institute for Bioengineering, Brunel University, London, UK
| | - Ian Garrard
- Brunel Institute for Bioengineering, Brunel University, London, UK
| | - Pascal M W Drake
- The Hotung Molecular Immunology Unit, Institute for Infection and Immunity, St. George's University of London, London, UK
| | - Julian K-C Ma
- The Hotung Molecular Immunology Unit, Institute for Infection and Immunity, St. George's University of London, London, UK
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10
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Vanier G, Hempel F, Chan P, Rodamer M, Vaudry D, Maier UG, Lerouge P, Bardor M. Biochemical Characterization of Human Anti-Hepatitis B Monoclonal Antibody Produced in the Microalgae Phaeodactylum tricornutum. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0139282. [PMID: 26437211 PMCID: PMC4593558 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0139282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2015] [Accepted: 09/09/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) represent actually the major class of biopharmaceuticals. They are produced recombinantly using living cells as biofactories. Among the different expression systems currently available, microalgae represent an emerging alternative which displays several biotechnological advantages. Indeed, microalgae are classified as generally recognized as safe organisms and can be grown easily in bioreactors with high growth rates similarly to CHO cells. Moreover, microalgae exhibit a phototrophic lifestyle involving low production costs as protein expression is fueled by photosynthesis. However, questions remain to be solved before any industrial production of algae-made biopharmaceuticals. Among them, protein heterogeneity as well as protein post-translational modifications need to be evaluated. Especially, N-glycosylation acquired by the secreted recombinant proteins is of major concern since most of the biopharmaceuticals including mAbs are N-glycosylated and it is well recognized that glycosylation represent one of their critical quality attribute. In this paper, we assess the quality of the first recombinant algae-made mAbs produced in the diatom, Phaeodactylum tricornutum. We are focusing on the characterization of their C- and N-terminal extremities, their signal peptide cleavage and their post-translational modifications including N-glycosylation macro- and microheterogeneity. This study brings understanding on diatom cellular biology, especially secretion and intracellular trafficking of proteins. Overall, it reinforces the positioning of P. tricornutum as an emerging host for the production of biopharmaceuticals and prove that P. tricornutum is suitable for producing recombinant proteins bearing high mannose-type N-glycans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gaëtan Vanier
- Laboratoire Glycobiologie et Matrice Extracellulaire végétale Equipe d’Accueil 4358, Faculté des sciences et techniques, Université de Rouen, Normandie Université, Institut de Recherche et d’Innovation Biomédicale, Végétale Agronomie Sol Innovation, Mont-Saint-Aignan, France
| | - Franziska Hempel
- LOEWE Center for Synthetic Microbiology, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Marburg, Germany
| | - Philippe Chan
- PISSARO Proteomic Platform, Normandie Université, Institut de Recherche et d’Innovation Biomédicale, Mont-Saint-Aignan, France
| | | | - David Vaudry
- PISSARO Proteomic Platform, Normandie Université, Institut de Recherche et d’Innovation Biomédicale, Mont-Saint-Aignan, France
| | - Uwe G. Maier
- LOEWE Center for Synthetic Microbiology, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Marburg, Germany
| | - Patrice Lerouge
- Laboratoire Glycobiologie et Matrice Extracellulaire végétale Equipe d’Accueil 4358, Faculté des sciences et techniques, Université de Rouen, Normandie Université, Institut de Recherche et d’Innovation Biomédicale, Végétale Agronomie Sol Innovation, Mont-Saint-Aignan, France
| | - Muriel Bardor
- Laboratoire Glycobiologie et Matrice Extracellulaire végétale Equipe d’Accueil 4358, Faculté des sciences et techniques, Université de Rouen, Normandie Université, Institut de Recherche et d’Innovation Biomédicale, Végétale Agronomie Sol Innovation, Mont-Saint-Aignan, France
- Institut Universitaire de France, Paris, France
- * E-mail:
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11
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Tekoah Y, Shulman A, Kizhner T, Ruderfer I, Fux L, Nataf Y, Bartfeld D, Ariel T, Gingis-Velitski S, Hanania U, Shaaltiel Y. Large-scale production of pharmaceutical proteins in plant cell culture-the Protalix experience. PLANT BIOTECHNOLOGY JOURNAL 2015; 13:1199-208. [PMID: 26102075 DOI: 10.1111/pbi.12428] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2015] [Revised: 05/14/2015] [Accepted: 05/26/2015] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Protalix Biotherapeutics develops recombinant human proteins and produces them in plant cell culture. Taliglucerase alfa has been the first biotherapeutic expressed in plant cells to be approved by regulatory authorities around the world. Other therapeutic proteins are being developed and are currently at various stages of the pipeline. This review summarizes the major milestones reached by Protalix Biotherapeutics to enable the development of these biotherapeutics, including platform establishment, cell line selection, manufacturing process and good manufacturing practice principles to consider for the process. Examples of the various products currently being developed are also presented.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Liat Fux
- Protalix Biotherapeutics, Carmiel, Israel
| | | | | | - Tami Ariel
- Protalix Biotherapeutics, Carmiel, Israel
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12
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Lannoo N, Van Damme EJM. Review/N-glycans: The making of a varied toolbox. PLANT SCIENCE : AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL PLANT BIOLOGY 2015; 239:67-83. [PMID: 26398792 DOI: 10.1016/j.plantsci.2015.06.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2015] [Revised: 06/22/2015] [Accepted: 06/23/2015] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Asparagine (N)-linked protein glycosylation is one of the most crucial, prevalent, and complex co- and post-translational protein modifications. It plays a pivotal role in protein folding, quality control, and endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-associated degradation (ERAD) as well as in protein sorting, protein function, and in signal transduction. Furthermore, glycosylation modulates many important biological processes including growth, development, morphogenesis, and stress signaling processes. As a consequence, aberrant or altered N-glycosylation is often associated with reduced fitness, diseases, and disorders. The initial steps of N-glycan synthesis at the cytosolic side of the ER membrane and in the lumen of the ER are highly conserved. In contrast, the final N-glycan processing in the Golgi apparatus is organism-specific giving rise to a wide variety of carbohydrate structures. Despite our vast knowledge on N-glycans in yeast and mammals, the modus operandi of N-glycan signaling in plants is still largely unknown. This review will elaborate on the N-glycosylation biosynthesis pathway in plants but will also critically assess how N-glycans are involved in different signaling cascades, either active during normal development or upon abiotic and biotic stresses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nausicaä Lannoo
- Lab Biochemistry and Glycobiology, Department Molecular Biotechnology, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Els J M Van Damme
- Lab Biochemistry and Glycobiology, Department Molecular Biotechnology, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium.
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13
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Matsuo K, Kagaya U, Itchoda N, Tabayashi N, Matsumura T. Deletion of plant-specific sugar residues in plant N-glycans by repression of GDP-D-mannose 4,6-dehydratase and β-1,2-xylosyltransferase genes. J Biosci Bioeng 2014; 118:448-54. [PMID: 24794851 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiosc.2014.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2014] [Revised: 03/24/2014] [Accepted: 04/06/2014] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Production of pharmaceutical glycoproteins, such as therapeutic antibodies and cytokines, in plants has many advantages in safety and reduced costs. However, plant-made glycoproteins have N-glycans with plant-specific sugar residues (core β-1,2-xylose and α-1,3-fucose) and a Lewis a (Le(a)) epitope, Galβ(1-3)[Fucα(1-4)]GlcNAc. Because it is likely that these sugar residues and glycan structures are immunogenic, many attempts have been made to delete them. Previously, we reported the simultaneous deletion of the plant-specific core α-1,3-fucose and α-1,4-fucose residues in Le(a) epitopes by repressing the GDP-D-mannose 4,6-dehydratase (GMD) gene, which is associated with GDP-L-fucose biosynthesis, in Nicotiana benthamiana plants (rGMD plants, renamed to ΔGMD plants) (Matsuo and Matsumura, Plant Biotechnol. J., 9, 264-281, 2011). In the present study, we generated a core β-1,2-xylose residue-repressed transgenic N. benthamiana plant by co-suppression of β-1,2-xylosyltransferase (ΔXylT plant). By crossing ΔGMD and ΔXylT plants, we successfully generated plants in which plant-specific sugar residues were repressed (ΔGMDΔXylT plants). The proportion of N-glycans with deleted plant-specific sugar residues found in total soluble protein from ΔGMDΔXylT plants increased by 82.41%. Recombinant mouse granulocyte/macrophage-colony stimulating factor (mGM-CSF) and human monoclonal immunoglobulin G (hIgG) harboring N-glycans with deleted plant-specific sugar residues were successfully produced in ΔGMDΔXylT plants. Simultaneous repression of the GMD and XylT genes in N. benthamiana is thus very useful for deleting plant-specific sugar residues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kouki Matsuo
- Bioproduction Research Institute, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), 2-17-2-1 Tsukisamu-Higashi, Toyohira-ku, Sapporo 062-8517, Japan.
| | - Uiko Kagaya
- Agroscience Research Laboratories, Hokusan Co., Ltd., 27-4, Kitanosato, Kitahiroshima, Hokkaido 061-1111, Japan
| | - Noriko Itchoda
- Agroscience Research Laboratories, Hokusan Co., Ltd., 27-4, Kitanosato, Kitahiroshima, Hokkaido 061-1111, Japan
| | - Noriko Tabayashi
- Agroscience Research Laboratories, Hokusan Co., Ltd., 27-4, Kitanosato, Kitahiroshima, Hokkaido 061-1111, Japan
| | - Takeshi Matsumura
- Bioproduction Research Institute, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), 2-17-2-1 Tsukisamu-Higashi, Toyohira-ku, Sapporo 062-8517, Japan
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14
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Häkkinen ST, Raven N, Henquet M, Laukkanen ML, Anderlei T, Pitkänen JP, Twyman RM, Bosch D, Oksman-Caldentey KM, Schillberg S, Ritala A. Molecular farming in tobacco hairy roots by triggering the secretion of a pharmaceutical antibody. Biotechnol Bioeng 2014; 111:336-46. [PMID: 24030771 DOI: 10.1002/bit.25113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2013] [Revised: 08/30/2013] [Accepted: 09/05/2013] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Recombinant pharmaceutical proteins expressed in hairy root cultures can be secreted into the medium to improve product homogeneity and to facilitate purification, although this may result in significant degradation if the protein is inherently unstable or particularly susceptible to proteases. To address these challenges, we used a design of experiments approach to develop an optimized induction protocol for the cultivation of tobacco hairy roots secreting the full-size monoclonal antibody M12. The antibody yield was enhanced 30-fold by the addition of 14 g/L KNO3 , 19 mg/L 1-naphthaleneacetic acid and 1.5 g/L of the stabilizing agent polyvinylpyrrolidone. Analysis of hairy root cross sections revealed that the optimized medium induced lateral root formation and morphological changes in the inner cortex and pericycle cells, indicating that the improved productivity was at least partially based on the enhanced efficiency of antibody secretion. We found that 57% of the antibody was secreted, yielding 5.9 mg of product per liter of induction medium. Both the secreted and intracellular forms of the antibody could be isolated by protein A affinity chromatography and their functionality was confirmed using vitronectin-binding assays. Glycan analysis revealed three major plant complex-type glycans on both forms of the antibody, although the secreted form was more homogeneous due to the predominance of a specific glycoform. Tobacco hairy root cultures therefore offer a practical solution for the production of homogeneous pharmaceutical antibodies in containment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suvi T Häkkinen
- VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland, P.O. Box 1000, 02044, VTT, Finland
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15
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Bosch D, Schots A. Plant glycans: friend or foe in vaccine development? Expert Rev Vaccines 2014; 9:835-42. [DOI: 10.1586/erv.10.83] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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16
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Lim CY, Lee KJ, Oh DB, Ko K. Effect of the developmental stage and tissue position on the expression and glycosylation of recombinant glycoprotein GA733-FcK in transgenic plants. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2014; 5:778. [PMID: 25628633 PMCID: PMC4292234 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2014.00778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2014] [Accepted: 12/16/2014] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
The influence of developmental stage and position (top, middle, and base) of leaves and stem tissues on the expression and glycosylation pattern of a recombinant therapeutic protein -GA733-FcK- was observed in transgenic seedlings during a 16-week growth period. RNA expression gradually increased with age in the middle and basal leaves and decreased in top leaves after 14 weeks. The protein expression level at all leaf positions increased until 14 weeks and slightly decreased at 16 weeks; it was lower in yellow leaves than in green leaves. In stem, protein expression gradually decreased from the top to the base. The glycosylation patterns of GA733-FcK were analyzed from 10 to 16 weeks. The plant-specific glycans increased in the top leaves at 14 weeks, but only slightly changed in the middle and basal leaves. The structure of glycans varied with tissue position. The glycosylation level in the top and middle leaves increased until 12 and 14 weeks, respectively, and decreased thereafter, whereas it decreased in basal leaves until 14 weeks and increased at 16 weeks. In stem, all three sections showed high-mannose type glycan structures. The area size of the glycans was significantly higher in the top stem than in both the middle and basal stems, and it was smaller in yellow leaves than in green leaves. The glycan profiles were similar between green and yellow leaves until 16 weeks. Thus, biomass-harvesting time should be optimized to obtain recombinant therapeutic proteins with ideal glycan structure profiles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chae-Yeon Lim
- Department of Medicine, Medical Research Institute, College of Medicine, Chung-Ang UniversitySeoul, South Korea
| | - Kyung Jin Lee
- Department of Medicine, Medical Research Institute, College of Medicine, Chung-Ang UniversitySeoul, South Korea
| | - Doo-Byoung Oh
- Biochemicals and Synthetic Biology Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and BiotechnologyDaejeon, South Korea
| | - Kisung Ko
- Department of Medicine, Medical Research Institute, College of Medicine, Chung-Ang UniversitySeoul, South Korea
- *Correspondence: Kisung Ko, Department of Medicine, Medical Research Institute, College of Medicine, Chung-Ang University, Seoul 156-756, South Korea e-mail:
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17
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Stoger E, Fischer R, Moloney M, Ma JKC. Plant molecular pharming for the treatment of chronic and infectious diseases. ANNUAL REVIEW OF PLANT BIOLOGY 2014; 65:743-68. [PMID: 24579993 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-arplant-050213-035850] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Plant molecular pharming has emerged as a niche technology for the manufacture of pharmaceutical products indicated for chronic and infectious diseases, particularly for products that do not fit into the current industry-favored model of fermenter-based production campaigns. In this review, we explore the areas where molecular pharming can make the greatest impact, including the production of pharmaceuticals that have novel glycan structures or that cannot be produced efficiently in microbes or mammalian cells because they are insoluble or toxic. We also explore the market dynamics that encourage the use of molecular pharming, particularly for pharmaceuticals that are required in small amounts (such as personalized medicines) or large amounts (on a multi-ton scale, such as blood products and microbicides) and those that are needed in response to emergency situations (pandemics and bioterrorism). The impact of molecular pharming will increase as the platforms become standardized and optimized through adoption of good manufacturing practice (GMP) standards for clinical development, offering a new opportunity to produce inexpensive medicines in regional markets that are typically excluded under current business models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Stoger
- Department of Applied Genetics and Cell Biology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, 1190 Vienna, Austria;
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18
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Arcalis E, Stadlmann J, Rademacher T, Marcel S, Sack M, Altmann F, Stoger E. Plant species and organ influence the structure and subcellular localization of recombinant glycoproteins. PLANT MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2013; 83:105-17. [PMID: 23553222 DOI: 10.1007/s11103-013-0049-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2012] [Accepted: 03/22/2013] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Many plant-based systems have been developed as bioreactors to produce recombinant proteins. The choice of system for large-scale production depends on its intrinsic expression efficiency and its propensity for scale-up, post-harvest storage and downstream processing. Factors that must be considered include the anticipated production scale, the value and intended use of the product, the geographical production area, the proximity of processing facilities, intellectual property, safety and economics. It is also necessary to consider whether different species and organs affect the subcellular trafficking, structure and qualitative properties of recombinant proteins. In this article we discuss the subcellular localization and N-glycosylation of two commercially-relevant recombinant glycoproteins (Aspergillus niger phytase and anti-HIV antibody 2G12) produced in different plant species and organs. We augment existing data with novel results based on the expression of the same recombinant proteins in Arabidopsis and tobacco seeds, focusing on similarities and subtle differences in N-glycosylation that often reflect the subcellular trafficking route and final destination, as well as differences generated by unique enzyme activities in different species and tissues. We discuss the potential consequences of such modifications on the stability and activity of the recombinant glycoproteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elsa Arcalis
- Department of Applied Genetics and Cell Biology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
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19
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Cueno ME, Imai K, Okamoto T, Ochiai K. Overlapping glycosylation sequon influences the glycosylation pattern of a chimeric protein expressed in tomato leaf and callus. J Biotechnol 2013; 164:9-12. [PMID: 23246985 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiotec.2012.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2012] [Revised: 12/04/2012] [Accepted: 12/06/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Overlapping glycosylation sequon (OGS) is composed of two overlapping N-glycosylation sequons and has been found in certain glycoproteins with pharmaceutical value. With a growing interest to produce pharmaceutical glycoproteins in plants, it is important to establish the glycosylation pattern of OGS-containing proteins expressed in varying plant tissues. Here, a chimeric OGS (NNST)-containing gene and its mutated forms (NNAT and NASNAT) were expressed in callus-derived tomato plantlets. Tissue extracts from the recombinant leaf and callus were used in immunoblotting and glycoprotein detection. We found that the glycosylation patterns of the NNST-containing chimeric protein differ from that of NNAT- and NASNAT-containing proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marni E Cueno
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Nagoya City University, Aichi 467-8601, Japan.
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20
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Hassan S, Colgan R, Paul MJ, Atkinson CJ, Sexton AL, van Dolleweerd CJ, Keshavarz-Moore E, Ma JKC. Recombinant monoclonal antibody yield in transgenic tobacco plants is affected by the wounding response via an ethylene dependent mechanism. Transgenic Res 2012; 21:1221-32. [PMID: 22350717 DOI: 10.1007/s11248-012-9595-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2011] [Accepted: 02/03/2012] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Variability in recombinant IgG yield in transgenic tobacco plants has previously been observed in relation to leaf position, and is interpreted as a function of ageing and the senescence process, leading to increasing protein degradation. Here, similar findings are demonstrated in plants of different ages, expressing IgG but not IgG-HDEL, an antibody form that accumulates within the endoplasmic reticulum. Antibody yields declined following wounding in young transgenic plants expressing IgG but not in those expressing IgG-HDEL. However, in mature IgG plants, the opposite was demonstrated, with significant boosts in yield, while mature IgG-HDEL plants could not be boosted. The lack of response in IgG-HDEL plants suggests that the changes induced by wounding occur post-translationally, and the findings might be explained by wounding responses that differ in plants according to their developmental stages. Plant mechanisms involved in senescence and wounding overlap to a significant degree and compounds such as ethylene, jasmonic acid and salicylic acid are important for mediating downstream effects. Treatment of transgenic plants with ethylene also resulted in a decrease in recombinant IgG yield, which was consistent with the finding that wounded plants could induce lower IgG yields in neighbouring non-wounded plants. Treatment with 1-MCP, an ethylene antagonist, abrogated the IgG yield drop that resulted from wounding, but had no effect on the more gradual IgG yield loss associated with increasing plant age.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sally Hassan
- CMM, 2nd Floor Jenner Wing, St. George's Hospital Medical School, Cranmer Terrace, London SW17 0RE, UK
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21
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Shin YJ, Chong YJ, Yang MS, Kwon TH. Production of recombinant human granulocyte macrophage-colony stimulating factor in rice cell suspension culture with a human-like N-glycan structure. PLANT BIOTECHNOLOGY JOURNAL 2011; 9:1109-19. [PMID: 21801300 DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-7652.2011.00636.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
The rice α-amylase 3D promoter system, which is activated under sucrose-starved conditions, has emerged as a useful system for producing recombinant proteins. However, using rice as the production system for therapeutic proteins requires modifications of the N-glycosylation pattern because of the potential immunogenicity of plant-specific sugar residues. In this study, glyco-engineered rice were generated as a production host for therapeutic glycoproteins, using RNA interference (RNAi) technology to down-regulate the endogenous α-1,3-fucosyltransferase (α-1,3-FucT) and β-1,2-xylosyltransferase (β-1,2-XylT) genes. N-linked glycans from the RNAi lines were identified, and their structures were compared with those isolated from a wild-type cell suspension. The inverted-repeat chimeric RNA silencing construct of α-1,3-fucosyltransferase and β-1,2-xylosyltransferase (Δ3FT/XT)-9 glyco-engineered line with significantly reduced core α-1,3-fucosylated and/or β-1,2-xylosylated glycan structures was established. Moreover, levels of plant-specific α-1,3-fucose and/or β-1,2-xylose residues incorporated into recombinant human granulocyte/macrophage colony-stimulating factor (hGM-CSF) produced from the N44 + Δ3FT/XT-4 glyco-engineered line co-expressing ihpRNA of Δ3FT/XT and hGM-CSF were significantly decreased compared with those in the previously reported N44-08 transgenic line expressing hGM-CSF. None of the glyco-engineered lines differed from the wild type with respect to cell division, proliferation or ability to secrete proteins into the culture medium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yun-Ji Shin
- Jeonju Biomaterials Institute, Jang-dong, Jeonju, South Korea
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22
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Nagels B, Santens F, Weterings K, Van Damme EJM, Callewaert N. Improved sample preparation for CE-LIF analysis of plant N-glycans. Electrophoresis 2011; 32:3482-90. [PMID: 22102066 DOI: 10.1002/elps.201100268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2011] [Revised: 07/17/2011] [Accepted: 07/17/2011] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
In view of glycomics studies in plants, it is important to have sensitive tools that allow one to analyze and characterize the N-glycans present on plant proteins in different species. Earlier methods combined plant-based sample preparations with CE-LIF N-glycan analysis but suffered from background contaminations, often resulting in non-reproducible results. This publication describes a reproducible and sensitive protocol for the preparation and analysis of plant N-glycans, based on a combination of the 'in-gel release method' and N-glycan analysis on a multicapillary DNA sequencer. Our protocol makes it possible to analyze plant N-glycans starting from low amounts of plant material with highly reproducible results. The developed protocol was validated for different plant species and plant cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bieke Nagels
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
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23
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Misaki R, Sakai Y, Omasa T, Fujiyama K, Seki T. N-terminal vacuolar sorting signal at the mouse antibody alters the N-linked glycosylation pattern in suspension-cultured tobacco BY2 cells. J Biosci Bioeng 2011; 112:476-84. [PMID: 21802986 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiosc.2011.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2011] [Revised: 06/14/2011] [Accepted: 07/04/2011] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Recombinant DNA technology enables the use of plants as the host for the production of pharmaceutical proteins, such as antibodies. The glycosylation of recombinant proteins plays physiological and biological roles. However, because glycosylation in plants is different from that in human cells, the development of glycoengineering is required. In plant cells, glycan structures are shown to correlate with the localization of the recombinant protein produced. In this study, the vacuolar sorting signal (VSS) of sporamin was fused to the heavy (H) and light (L) chains of a mouse monoclonal antibody (mAb), and the mAb was produced in suspension-cultured tobacco BY2 cells. The sugar chain structures were determined by high-performance liquid chromatography, exoglycosidase digestion, and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry. Typical plant glycans with α1,3-fucosylation and/or β1,2-xylosylation derived from mAb with the VSS-fused H-chain (mIgG1000) and mAb with the VSS-fused H- and L-chain (mIgG1010) occupied the large amount of the total N-glycans, 72.1% and 85.0%, respectively, such as those derived from mAb without VSS (mIgG0000), 74.6% (Fujiyama et al., J. Biosci. Bioeng., 101, 212-218, 2006). In contrast, the typical plant glycan structure Man₃FucXylGlcNAc₂ particularly in vacuoles accounted for 37.8% of the total sugar chains derived from mIgG1000 and 58.5% of those derived from mIgG1010 compared with 24.3% of those derived from mIgG0000. These results suggest that the sporamin signal peptide fused to mAb acts as a VSS and leads to the increase in the amount of Man₃FucXylGlcNAc₂, which is the main N-glycan structure in vacuoles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryo Misaki
- International Center for Biotechnology, Osaka University, Yamada-oka 2-1, Suita-shi, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
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24
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Kato K, Maruyama S, Hirai T, Hiwasa-Tanase K, Mizoguchi T, Goto E, Ezura H. A trial of production of the plant-derived high-value protein in a plant factory: photosynthetic photon fluxes affect the accumulation of recombinant miraculin in transgenic tomato fruits. PLANT SIGNALING & BEHAVIOR 2011; 6:1172-9. [PMID: 21791976 PMCID: PMC3260715 DOI: 10.4161/psb.6.8.16373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2011] [Revised: 05/01/2011] [Accepted: 05/08/2011] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
One of the ultimate goals of plant science is to test a hypothesis obtained by basic science and to apply it to agriculture and industry. A plant factory is one of the ideal systems for this trial. Environmental factors affect both plant yield and the accumulation of recombinant proteins for industrial applications within transgenic plants. However, there have been few reports studying plant productivity for recombinant protein in closed cultivation systems called plant factories. To investigate the effects of photosynthetic photon flux (PPF) on tomato fruit yield and the accumulation of recombinant miraculin, a taste-modifying glycoprotein, in transgenic tomato fruits, plants were cultivated at various PPFs from 100 to 400 (µmol m(-2) s(-)1) in a plant factory. Miraculin production per unit of energy used was highest at PPF100, although miraculin production per unit area was highest at PPF300. The commercial productivity of recombinant miraculin in transgenic tomato fruits largely depended on light conditions in the plant factory. Our trial will be useful to consider the trade-offs between the profits from production of high-value materials in plants and the costs of electricity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazuhisa Kato
- Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences; University of Tsukuba Ibaraki; Ibaraki, Japan
| | | | - Tadayoshi Hirai
- Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences; University of Tsukuba Ibaraki; Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Kyoko Hiwasa-Tanase
- Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences; University of Tsukuba Ibaraki; Ibaraki, Japan
| | | | - Eiji Goto
- Faculty of Horticulture; Chiba University; Matsudo, Chiba Japan
| | - Hiroshi Ezura
- Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences; University of Tsukuba Ibaraki; Ibaraki, Japan
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25
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Song W, Henquet MG, Mentink RA, van Dijk AJ, Cordewener JH, Bosch D, America AH, van der Krol AR. N-glycoproteomics in plants: Perspectives and challenges. J Proteomics 2011; 74:1463-74. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2011.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2011] [Revised: 04/27/2011] [Accepted: 05/02/2011] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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26
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Matsuo K, Matsumura T. Deletion of fucose residues in plant N-glycans by repression of the GDP-mannose 4,6-dehydratase gene using virus-induced gene silencing and RNA interference. PLANT BIOTECHNOLOGY JOURNAL 2011; 9:264-81. [PMID: 20731789 DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-7652.2010.00553.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Production of pharmaceutical glycoproteins in plants has many advantages in terms of safety and reduced costs. However, plant-produced glycoproteins have N-glycans with plant-specific sugar residues (core β-1,2-xylose and α-1,3-fucose) and a Lewis a (Le(a) ) epitope, i.e., Galβ(1-3)[Fucα(1-4)]GlcNAc. Because these sugar residues and glycan structures seemed to be immunogenic, several attempts have been made to delete them by repressing their respective glycosyltransferase genes. However, until date, such deletions have not been successful in completely eliminating the fucose residues. In this study, we simultaneously reduced the plant-specific core α-1,3-fucose and α-1,4-fucose residues in the Le(a) epitopes by repressing the Guanosine 5'-diphosphate (GDP)-D-mannose 4,6-dehydratase (GMD) gene, which is associated with GDP-L-fucose biosynthesis, in Nicotiana benthamiana plants. Repression of GMD was achieved using virus-induced gene silencing (VIGS) and RNA interference (RNAi). The proportion of fucose-free N-glycans found in total soluble protein from GMD gene-repressed plants increased by 80% and 95% following VIGS and RNAi, respectively, compared to wild-type plants. A small amount of putative galactose substitution in N-glycans from the NbGMD gene-repressed plants was observed, similar to what has been previously reported GMD-knockout Arabidopsis mutant. On the other hand, the recombinant mouse granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) with fucose-deleted N-glycans was successfully produced in NbGMD-RNAi transgenic N. benthamiana plants. Thus, repression of the GMD gene is thus very useful for deleting immunogenic total fucose residues and facilitating the production of pharmaceutical glycoproteins in plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kouki Matsuo
- Bioproduction Research Institute, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, Toyohira-ku, Sapporo, Japan.
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27
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Yin BJ, Gao T, Zheng NY, Li Y, Tang SY, Liang LM, Xie Q. Generation of glyco-engineered BY2 cell lines with decreased expression of plant-specific glycoepitopes. Protein Cell 2011; 2:41-7. [PMID: 21337008 PMCID: PMC4875288 DOI: 10.1007/s13238-011-1007-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2010] [Accepted: 01/06/2011] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Plants are known to be efficient hosts for the production of mammalian therapeutic proteins. However, plants produce complex N-glycans bearing β1,2-xylose and core α1,3-fucose residues, which are absent in mammals. The immunogenicity and allergenicity of plant-specific Nglycans is a key concern in mammalian therapy. In this study, we amplified the sequences of 2 plant-specific glycosyltransferases from Nicotiana tabacum L. cv Bright Yellow 2 (BY2), which is a well-established cell line widely used for the expression of therapeutic proteins. The expression of the endogenous xylosyltranferase (XylT) and fucosyltransferase (FucT) was downregulated by using RNA interference (RNAi) strategy. The xylosylated and core fucosylated N-glycans were significantly, but not completely, reduced in the glycoengineered lines. However, these RNAi-treated cell lines were stable and viable and did not exhibit any obvious phenotype. Therefore, this study may provide an effective and promising strategy to produce recombinant glycoproteins in BY2 cells with humanized N-glycoforms to avoid potential immunogenicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo-jiao Yin
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics, National Center for Plant Gene Research, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Datun Road, Beijing, 100101 China
- State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen (Zhongshan) University, 135 Xingang Road W, Guangzhou, 510275 China
| | - Ting Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics, National Center for Plant Gene Research, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Datun Road, Beijing, 100101 China
| | - Nuo-yan Zheng
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics, National Center for Plant Gene Research, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Datun Road, Beijing, 100101 China
- State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen (Zhongshan) University, 135 Xingang Road W, Guangzhou, 510275 China
| | - Yin Li
- State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen (Zhongshan) University, 135 Xingang Road W, Guangzhou, 510275 China
| | - San-yuan Tang
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics, National Center for Plant Gene Research, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Datun Road, Beijing, 100101 China
| | - Li-ming Liang
- State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen (Zhongshan) University, 135 Xingang Road W, Guangzhou, 510275 China
| | - Qi Xie
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics, National Center for Plant Gene Research, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Datun Road, Beijing, 100101 China
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del Val IJ, Kontoravdi C, Nagy JM. Towards the implementation of quality by design to the production of therapeutic monoclonal antibodies with desired glycosylation patterns. Biotechnol Prog 2010; 26:1505-27. [DOI: 10.1002/btpr.470] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
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29
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Shin YJ, Chong YJ, Han KB, Yang MS, Kwon TH. N-linked glycan analysis of glycoproteins secreted from rice cell suspension cultures under sugar starvation. Enzyme Microb Technol 2010. [DOI: 10.1016/j.enzmictec.2010.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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30
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Triguero A, Cabrera G, Royle L, Harvey DJ, Rudd PM, Dwek RA, Bardor M, Lerouge P, Cremata JA. Chemical and enzymatic N-glycan release comparison for N-glycan profiling of monoclonal antibodies expressed in plants. Anal Biochem 2010; 400:173-83. [PMID: 20109437 DOI: 10.1016/j.ab.2010.01.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2009] [Revised: 01/22/2010] [Accepted: 01/22/2010] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Plants synthesize N-glycans containing the antigenic sugars alpha(1,3)-fucose and beta(1,2)-xylose. Therefore it is important to monitor these N-glycans in monoclonal antibodies produced in plants (plantibodies). We evaluated several techniques to characterize the N-glycosylation of a plantibody produced in tobacco plants with and without the KDEL tetrapeptide endoplasmic reticulum retention signal which should inhibit or drastically reduce the addition of alpha(1,3)-fucose and beta(1,2)-xylose. Ammonium hydroxide/carbonate-based chemical deglycosylation and PNGase A enzymatic release were investigated giving similar 2-aminobenzamide-labeled N-glycan HPLC profiles. The chemical release does not generate peptides which is convenient for MS analysis of unlabeled pool but its main drawback is that it induces degradation of alpha1,3-fucosylated N-glycan reducing terminal sugar. Three analytical methods for N-glycan characterization were evaluated: (i) MALDI-MS of glycopeptides from tryptic digestion; (ii) negative-ion ESI-MS/MS of released N-glycans; (iii) normal-phase HPLC of fluorescently labeled glycans in combination with exoglycosidase sequencing. The MS methods identified the major glycans, but the HPLC method was best for identification and relative quantitation of N-glycans. Negative-mode ESI-MS/MS permitted also the correct identification of the linkage position of the fucose residue linked to the inner core N-acteylglucosamine (GlcNAc) in complex N-glycans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ada Triguero
- Department of Carbohydrate Chemistry, Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Havana, Cuba
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31
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Colgan R, Atkinson CJ, Paul M, Hassan S, Drake PMW, Sexton AL, Santa-Cruz S, James D, Hamp K, Gutteridge C, Ma JKC. Optimisation of contained Nicotiana tabacum cultivation for the production of recombinant protein pharmaceuticals. Transgenic Res 2010; 19:241-56. [PMID: 19588264 DOI: 10.1007/s11248-009-9303-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2009] [Accepted: 06/21/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Nicotiana tabacum is emerging as a crop of choice for production of recombinant protein pharmaceuticals. Although there is significant commercial expertise in tobacco farming, different cultivation practices are likely to be needed when the objective is to optimise protein expression, yield and extraction, rather than the traditional focus on biomass and alkaloid production. Moreover, pharmaceutical transgenic tobacco plants are likely to be grown initially within a controlled environment, the parameters for which have yet to be established. Here, the growth characteristics and functional recombinant protein yields for two separate transgenic tobacco plant lines were investigated. The impacts of temperature, day-length, compost nitrogen content, radiation and plant density were examined. Temperature was the only environmental variable to affect IgG concentration in the plants, with higher yields observed in plants grown at lower temperature. In contrast, temperature, supplementary radiation and plant density all affected the total soluble protein yield in the same plants. Transgenic plants expressing a second recombinant protein (cyanovirin-N) responded differently to IgG transgenic plants to elevated temperature, with an increase in cyanovirin-N concentration, although the effect of the environmental variables on total soluble protein yields was the same as the IgG plants. Planting density and radiation levels were important factors affecting variability of the two recombinant protein yields in transgenic plants. Phenotypic differences were observed between the two transgenic plant lines and non-transformed N. tabacum, but the effect of different growing conditions was consistent between the three lines. Temperature, day length, radiation intensity and planting density all had a significant impact on biomass production. Taken together, the data suggest that recombinant protein yield is not affected substantially by environmental factors other than growth temperature. Overall productivity is therefore correlated to biomass production, although other factors such as purification burden, extractability protein stability and quality also need to be considered in the optimal design of cultivation conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Colgan
- East Malling Research, New Road, East Malling, Kent ME19 6BJ, UK
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32
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Jamal A, Ko K, Kim HS, Choo YK, Joung H, Ko K. Role of genetic factors and environmental conditions in recombinant protein production for molecular farming. Biotechnol Adv 2009; 27:914-923. [PMID: 19698776 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2009.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2008] [Revised: 07/19/2009] [Accepted: 07/21/2009] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Plants are generally considered to represent a promising heterologous expression system for the production of valuable recombinant proteins. Minimal upstream plant production cost is a salient feature driving the development of plant expression systems used for the synthesis of recombinant proteins. For such a plant expression system to be fully effective, it is first essential to improve plant productivity by plant biomass after inserting genes of interest into a suitable plant. Plant productivity is related closely to its growth and development, both of which are affected directly by environmental factors. These environmental factors that affect the cultivation conditions mainly include temperature, light, salinity, drought, nutrition, insects and pests. In addition, genetic factors that affect gene expression at the transcriptional, translational, and post-translational levels are considered to be important factors related to gene expression in plants. Thus, these factors influence both the quality and quantity of recombinant protein produced in transgenic plants. Among the genetic factors, the post-translational process is of particular interest as it influences subcellular localization, protein glycosylation, assembly and folding of therapeutic proteins, consequently affecting both protein quantity and biological quality. In this review, we discuss the effects of cultivation condition and genetic factors on recombinant protein production in transgenic plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arshad Jamal
- School of Food Science/Technology, College of Natural Resources, Yeungnam University, Gyeonbuk 712-749, Republic of Korea
| | - Kinarm Ko
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Max Planck Institute for Molecular Biomedicine, Muenster, Germany
| | - Hyun-Soon Kim
- Plant Genomics Research Center, KRIBB, 111 Gwahangno, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 305-806, Republic of Korea
| | - Young-Kug Choo
- Department of Biological Science, College of Natural Sciences, Institute of Biotechnology Wonkwang University, Iksan, Chonbuk 570-749, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyouk Joung
- Plant Genomics Research Center, KRIBB, 111 Gwahangno, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 305-806, Republic of Korea
| | - Kisung Ko
- Department of Biological Science, College of Natural Sciences, Institute of Biotechnology Wonkwang University, Iksan, Chonbuk 570-749, Republic of Korea.
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33
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Yin B, Zheng N, Li Y, Tang S, Liang L, Xie Q. Growth phase-dependent expression of proteins with decreased plant-specific N-glycans and immunogenicity in tobacco BY2 cells. SCIENCE IN CHINA. SERIES C, LIFE SCIENCES 2009; 52:739-46. [PMID: 19727592 DOI: 10.1007/s11427-009-0093-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2009] [Accepted: 04/15/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Plants possess some desirable characteristics to synthesize recombinant glycoproteins for pharmaceutical application. However, the mammalian glycoproteins produced in plants are somewhat different from their natural counterparts in terms of N-glycoforms. The immunogenicity of plant-specific glyco-epitopes is the major concern in human therapy. Here, the distribution of N-glycans in different growth phases of tobacco BY2 cells and their immunogenicity in mice were determined. It was observed that the percentage of beta1,2-xylose and alpha1,3-fucose in proteins of growing cells increased and the corresponding protein extracts caused accelerated immune response in mice. Based on this observation, the recombinant erythropoietin in BY2 cells was expressed and characterized, and Western blot analysis showed that the recombinant erythropoietin contained a relatively small amount of plant-specific glyco-epitopes in the early phase of culture growth. This study may provide a simple but effective strategy for the production of therapeutic glycoproteins with human-like N-glycan structures in plant hosts to avoid a great allergenic risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- BoJiao Yin
- Sun Yat-sen (Zhongshan) University, Guangzhou, 510275, China
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34
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Karg SR, Frey AD, Ferrara C, Streich DK, Umaña P, Kallio PT. A small-scale method for the preparation of plant N-linked glycans from soluble proteins for analysis by MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY : PPB 2009; 47:160-6. [PMID: 19028106 DOI: 10.1016/j.plaphy.2008.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2008] [Accepted: 10/19/2008] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
The use of plants as production hosts for recombinant glycoproteins, which is rapidly developing, requires methods for fast and reliable analysis of plant N-linked glycans. This study describes a simple small-scale method for the preparation of N-linked glycans from soluble plant protein and analysis thereof by matrix assisted laser desorption ionisation time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS). Concentration and protease digestion of plant protein as well as deglycosylation is carried out in a single concentrator unit without the need for intermittent purification to minimize adsorptive loss and to facilitate handling. Plant protein is concentrated in a unit with a 5kDa cutoff, and after buffer exchange, pepsin (EC 3.4.23.1) digestion is carried out in the concentrator overnight to obtain peptides as substrates for deglycosylation. Deglycosylation is carried out with peptide-N-glycosidase A (PNGase A; EC 3.5.1.52) for 24h. Released N-glycans are purified using reverse-phase and cation exchange chromatography micro-columns for removal of peptides and desalting. N-Glycans are directly analyzed by MALDI-TOF MS without derivatization. The method for isolation of N-glycans is compatible with secreted proteins from cell culture supernatant as well as with soluble protein extracts from leaf tissue. As little as 5mug of plant glycoprotein is sufficient for N-glycan preparation for MALDI-TOF MS analysis using this method.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saskia R Karg
- Institute of Microbiology, ETH Zürich, Wolfgang-Pauli Strasse 10, HCI F406, CH-8093 Zürich, Switzerland
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35
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Sourrouille C, Marshall B, Liénard D, Faye L. From Neanderthal to nanobiotech: from plant potions to pharming with plant factories. Methods Mol Biol 2009; 483:1-23. [PMID: 19183890 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-59745-407-0_1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Plants were the main source for human drugs until the beginning of the nineteenth century when plant-derived pharmaceuticals were partly supplanted by drugs produced by the industrial methods of chemical synthesis. During the last decades of the twentieth century, genetic engineering has offered an alternative to chemical synthesis, using bacteria, yeasts and animal cells as factories for the production of therapeutic proteins. After a temporary decrease in interest, plants are rapidly moving back into human pharmacopoeia, with the recent development of plant-based recombinant protein production systems offering a safe and extremely cost-effective alternative to microbial and mammalian cell cultures. In this short review, we will illustrate that current improvements in plant expression systems are making them suitable as alternative factories for the production of either simple or highly complex therapeutic proteins.
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36
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Wei X, Li L. Comparative glycoproteomics: approaches and applications. BRIEFINGS IN FUNCTIONAL GENOMICS AND PROTEOMICS 2008; 8:104-13. [PMID: 19091783 DOI: 10.1093/bfgp/eln053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Glycosylation plays fundamental roles in controlling various biological processes. Therefore, glycosylation analysis has become an important target for proteomic research and has great potential for clinical applications. With the continuous development and refinement of glycoprotein isolation methods, increasing attention has been directed to the quantitative and comparative aspects. This review describes the mass spectrometry (MS)-based techniques for the comparative analysis of glycoproteins and their applications to answer a wide range of interesting biological questions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Wei
- Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53705-2222 USA
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37
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Henquet M, Lehle L, Schreuder M, Rouwendal G, Molthoff J, Helsper J, van der Krol S, Bosch D. Identification of the gene encoding the alpha1,3-mannosyltransferase (ALG3) in Arabidopsis and characterization of downstream n-glycan processing. THE PLANT CELL 2008; 20:1652-64. [PMID: 18567790 PMCID: PMC2483356 DOI: 10.1105/tpc.108.060731] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2008] [Revised: 05/28/2008] [Accepted: 06/05/2008] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Glycosyltransferases are involved in the biosynthesis of lipid-linked N-glycans. Here, we identify and characterize a mannosyltransferase gene from Arabidopsis thaliana, which is the functional homolog of the ALG3 (Dol-P-Man:Man5GlcNAc2-PP-Dol alpha1,3-mannosyl transferase) gene in yeast. The At ALG3 protein can complement a Deltaalg3 yeast mutant and is localized to the endoplasmic reticulum in yeast and in plants. A homozygous T-DNA insertion mutant, alg3-2, was identified in Arabidopsis with residual levels of wild-type ALG3, derived from incidental splicing of the 11th intron carrying the T-DNAs. N-glycan analysis of alg3-2 and alg3-2 in the complex-glycan-less mutant background, which lacks N-acetylglucosaminyl-transferase I activity, reveals that when ALG3 activity is strongly reduced, almost all N-glycans transferred to proteins are aberrant, indicating that the Arabidopsis oligosaccharide transferase complex is remarkably substrate tolerant. In alg3-2 plants, the aberrant glycans on glycoproteins are recognized by endogenous mannosidase I and N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase I and efficiently processed into complex-type glycans. Although no high-mannose-type glycoproteins are detected in alg3-2 plants, these plants do not show a growth phenotype under normal growth conditions. However, the glycosylation abnormalities result in activation of marker genes diagnostic of the unfolded protein response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maurice Henquet
- Laboratory of Plant Physiology, Wageningen University, 6703 BD Wageningen, The Netherlands
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38
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Harvey DJ. Analysis of carbohydrates and glycoconjugates by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry: an update covering the period 2001-2002. MASS SPECTROMETRY REVIEWS 2008; 27:125-201. [PMID: 18247413 DOI: 10.1002/mas.20157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
This review is the second update of the original review on the application of MALDI mass spectrometry to the analysis of carbohydrates and glycoconjugates that was published in 1999. It covers fundamental aspects of the technique as applied to carbohydrates, fragmentation of carbohydrates, studies of specific carbohydrate types such as those from plant cell walls and those attached to proteins and lipids, studies of glycosyl-transferases and glycosidases, and studies where MALDI has been used to monitor products of chemical synthesis. Use of the technique shows a steady annual increase at the expense of older techniques such as FAB. There is an increasing emphasis on its use for examination of biological systems rather than on studies of fundamental aspects and method development and this is reflected by much of the work on applications appearing in tabular form.
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Affiliation(s)
- David J Harvey
- Department of Biochemistry, Oxford Glycobiology Institute, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3QU, UK.
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39
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McLean MD, Almquist KC, Niu Y, Kimmel R, Lai Z, Schreiber JR, Hall JC. A human anti-Pseudomonas aeruginosa serotype O6ad immunoglobulin G1 expressed in transgenic tobacco is capable of recruiting immune system effector function in vitro. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2007; 51:3322-8. [PMID: 17606688 PMCID: PMC2043195 DOI: 10.1128/aac.00366-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2007] [Revised: 04/18/2007] [Accepted: 06/14/2007] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The production of a recombinant human IgG1 in transgenic tobacco was examined to determine whether a plant-derived antibody could recruit immune system effector function against a bacterial pathogen. A plant transformation vector was engineered to contain genes for a human kappa light chain and a human gamma-1 heavy chain with V(H) and V(L) sequences from a previously identified human IgG2 monoclonal antibody (MAb) that specifically binds to and opsonizes Pseudomonas aeruginosa serotype O6ad. Unique NcoI and NotI restriction sites were incorporated to flank these variable sequences, resulting in a plant transformation vector that could be engineered for expression of any other human IgG1 antibody, requiring only the substitution of other V(H) and V(L) antigen-binding coding sequences. The plant-produced IgG1 was determined to have high-mannose glycan content and to be capable of mediating opsonophagocytosis of P. aeruginosa serotype O6ad in vitro using human complement and human polymorphonuclear leukocytes. Thus, MAbs produced in plants from this vector could provide human IgG1 MAbs for targeting other pathogens that require the recruitment of immune system effector functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael D McLean
- Department of Environmental Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, N1G 2W1 Canada
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40
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Becerra-Arteaga A, Shuler ML. Influence of culture medium supplementation of tobacco NT1 cell suspension cultures on the N-glycosylation of human secreted alkaline phosphatase. Biotechnol Bioeng 2007; 97:1585-93. [PMID: 17238209 DOI: 10.1002/bit.21344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
We report for the first time that culture conditions, specifically culture medium supplementation with nucleotide-sugar precursors, can alter significantly the N-linked glycosylation of a recombinant protein in plant cell culture. Human secreted alkaline phosphatase produced in tobacco NT1 cell suspension cultures was used as a model system. Plant cell cultures were supplemented with ammonia (30 mM), galactose (1 mM) and glucosamine (10 mM) to improve the extent of N-linked glycosylation. The highest levels of cell density and active extracellular SEAP in supplemented cultures were on average 260 g/L and 0.21 U/mL, respectively, compared to 340 g/L and 0.4 U/mL in unsupplemented cultures. The glycosylation profile of SEAP produced in supplemented cultures was determined via electrospray ionization mass spectrometry with precursor ion scanning and compared to that of SEAP produced in unsupplemented cultures. In supplemented and unsupplemented cultures, two biantennary complex-type structures terminated with one or two N-acetylglucosamines and one paucimannosidic glycan structure comprised about 85% of the SEAP glycan pool. These three structures contained plant-specific xylose and fucose residues and their relative abundances were affected by each supplement. High mannose structures (6-9 mannose residues) accounted for the remaining 15% glycans in all cases. The highest proportion (approximately 66%) of a single complex-type biantennary glycan structure terminated in both antennae by N- acetylglucosamine was obtained with glucosamine supplementation versus only 6% in unsupplemented medium. This structure is amenable for in vitro modification to yield a more human-like glycan and could serve as a route to plant cell culture produced therapeutic glycoproteins.
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41
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Balen B, Krsnik-Rasol M, Zamfir AD, Zadro I, Vakhrushev SY, Peter-Katalinic J. Assessment of N-glycan heterogeneity of cactus glycoproteins by one-dimensional gel electrophoresis and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry. J Biomol Tech 2007; 18:162-72. [PMID: 17595312 PMCID: PMC2062550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
Artificial environmental conditions in tissue culture, such as elevated relative humidity and rich nutrient medium, can influence and modify tissue growth and induce spontaneous changes from characteristic organization pattern to unorganized callus. As succulent plants with crassulacean acid metabolism, cacti are particularly susceptible to this altered growth environment. Glycosylated proteins of Mammillaria gracillis tissues cultivated in vitro, separated by SDS-PAGE, were detected with Con A after the transfer of proteins onto the nitrocellulose membrane. The glycan components were further characterized by affinity blotting with different lectins (GNA, DSA, PNA, and RCA(120)). The results revealed significant differences in glycoprotein pattern among the investigated cactus tissues (shoot, callus, hyperhydric regenerant, and tumor). To test whether the N-glycosylation of the same protein can vary in different developmental stages of cactus tissue, the N-glycans were analyzed by MALDI-TOF MS after in-gel deglycosylation of the excised 38-kDa protein band. Paucimannosidic-type N-glycans were detected in oligosaccharide mixtures from shoot and callus, while the hyperhydric regenerant and tumor shared glycans of complex type. The hybrid oligosaccharide structures were found only in tumor tissue. These results indicate that the adaptation of plant cells to artificial environment in tissue culture is reflected in N-glycosylation, and structures of N-linked glycans vary with different developmental stages of Mammillaria gracillis tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Biljana Balen
- Department of Molecular Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Zagreb, Horvatovac 102a, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia.
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42
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Abstract
Here we provide a detailed protocol for the analysis of protein-linked glycans on DNA sequencing equipment. This protocol satisfies the glyco-analytical needs of many projects and can form the basis of 'glycomics' studies, in which robustness, high throughput, high sensitivity and reliable quantification are of paramount importance. The protocol routinely resolves isobaric glycan stereoisomers, which is much more difficult by mass spectrometry (MS). Earlier methods made use of polyacrylamide gel-based sequencers, but we have now adapted the technique to multicapillary DNA sequencers, which represent the state of the art today. In addition, we have integrated an option for HPLC-based fractionation of highly anionic 8-amino-1,3,6-pyrenetrisulfonic acid (APTS)-labeled glycans before rapid capillary electrophoretic profiling. This option facilitates either two-dimensional profiling of complex glycan mixtures and exoglycosidase sequencing, or MS analysis of particular compounds of interest rather than of the total pool of glycans in a sample.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wouter Laroy
- Unit for Molecular Glycobiology, Department for Molecular Biomedical Research, Ghent University, and VIB, Technologiepark 927, B-9052 Gent-Zwijnaarde, Belgium.
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43
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Sack M, Paetz A, Kunert R, Bomble M, Hesse F, Stiegler G, Fischer R, Katinger H, Stoeger E, Rademacher T. Functional analysis of the broadly neutralizing human anti-HIV-1 antibody 2F5 produced in transgenic BY-2 suspension cultures. FASEB J 2007; 21:1655-64. [PMID: 17327362 DOI: 10.1096/fj.06-5863com] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
We report the production of an important human therapeutic antibody in plant cell suspension cultures and the functional analysis of that antibody, including a comparison with the same antibody produced in CHO cells. We established transgenic tobacco BY2 suspension cell cultures expressing the human monoclonal antibody 2F5, which shows broadly neutralizing activity against HIV-1. The antibody was directed to the endoplasmic reticulum of the plant cells and was isolated by cell disruption, followed by protein A chromatography. The plant-derived antibody was shown to be largely intact by SDS-PAGE and immunoblot. Antigen binding activity was investigated by electrophoretic mobility shift assay and quantitatively determined by ELISA and Biacore biosensor technology. Ligand binding properties were analyzed using the ectodomain of human Fc gammaRI for kinetic analysis. The plant-derived antibody showed similar kinetic properties and 89% of the binding capacity of its CHO-derived counterpart, but was only 33% as efficient in HIV-1 neutralization assays. Our results show that plant suspension cultures can be used to produce human antibodies efficiently and that the analysis methods used in this study, including biosensor technology, provide useful functional data about antibody performance. This highlights important issues raised by the use of plant systems to produce human biologics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Markus Sack
- Institute of Molecular Biotechnology, RTWH Aachen University, Worringerweg 1, 52074 Aachen, Germany
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44
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Rouwendal GJA, Wuhrer M, Florack DEA, Koeleman CAM, Deelder AM, Bakker H, Stoopen GM, van Die I, Helsper JPFG, Hokke CH, Bosch D. Efficient introduction of a bisecting GlcNAc residue in tobacco N-glycans by expression of the gene encoding human N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase III. Glycobiology 2007; 17:334-44. [PMID: 17179169 DOI: 10.1093/glycob/cwl078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
In this study, we show that introduction of human N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase (GnT)-III gene into tobacco plants leads to highly efficient synthesis of bisected N-glycans. Enzymatically released N-glycans from leaf glycoproteins of wild-type and transgenic GnT-III plants were profiled by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF-MS) in native form. After labeling with 2-aminobenzamide, profiling was performed using normal-phase high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection, and glycans were structurally characterized by MALDI-TOF/TOF-MS and reverse-phase nano-liquid chromatography-MS/MS. These analyses revealed that most of the complex-type N-glycans in the plants expressing GnT-III were bisected and carried at least two terminal N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc) residues in contrast to wild-type plants, where a considerable proportion of N-glycans did not contain GlcNAc residues at the nonreducing end. Moreover, we have shown that the majority of N-glycans of an antibody produced in a plant expressing GnT-III is also bisected. This might improve the efficacy of therapeutic antibodies produced in this type of transgenic plant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerard J A Rouwendal
- Business Unit Bioscience, Plant Research International BV, Wageningen University and Research Centre, Droevendaalsesteeg 1 6708 PB Wageningen, The Netherlands.
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45
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Liénard D, Sourrouille C, Gomord V, Faye L. Pharming and transgenic plants. BIOTECHNOLOGY ANNUAL REVIEW 2007; 13:115-47. [PMID: 17875476 DOI: 10.1016/s1387-2656(07)13006-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Plant represented the essence of pharmacopoeia until the beginning of the 19th century when plant-derived pharmaceuticals were partly supplanted by drugs produced by the industrial methods of chemical synthesis. In the last decades, genetic engineering has offered an alternative to chemical synthesis, using bacteria, yeasts and animal cells as factories for the production of therapeutic proteins. More recently, molecular farming has rapidly pushed towards plants among the major players in recombinant protein production systems. Indeed, therapeutic protein production is safe and extremely cost-effective in plants. Unlike microbial fermentation, plants are capable of carrying out post-translational modifications and, unlike production systems based on mammalian cell cultures, plants are devoid of human infective viruses and prions. Furthermore, a large panel of strategies and new plant expression systems are currently developed to improve the plant-made pharmaceutical's yields and quality. Recent advances in the control of post-translational maturations in transgenic plants will allow them, in the near future, to perform human-like maturations on recombinant proteins and, hence, make plant expression systems suitable alternatives to animal cell factories.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Liénard
- Université de Rouen, CNRS UMR 6037, IFRMP 23, GDR 2590, Faculté des Sciences, Bât. Ext. Biologie, 76821 Mont-Saint-Aignan cedex, France
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46
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Kaetzel CS, Chintalacharuvu KR, Morrison SL. Recombinant IgA Antibodies. MUCOSAL IMMUNE DEFENSE: IMMUNOGLOBULIN A 2007. [PMCID: PMC7121033 DOI: 10.1007/978-0-387-72232-0_15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The production of monoclonal antibodies and the development of recombinant antibody technology have made antibodies one of the largest classes of drugs in development for prophylactic, therapeutic and diagnostic purposes. Currently, all of the Food and Drug Administration (FDA)- approved antibodies are immunoglobulin Gs (IgGs). However, more than 95%of the infections are initiated at the mucosal surfaces, where IgA is the primary immune effector antibody.
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47
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Cox KM, Sterling JD, Regan JT, Gasdaska JR, Frantz KK, Peele CG, Black A, Passmore D, Moldovan-Loomis C, Srinivasan M, Cuison S, Cardarelli PM, Dickey LF. Glycan optimization of a human monoclonal antibody in the aquatic plant Lemna minor. Nat Biotechnol 2006; 24:1591-7. [PMID: 17128273 DOI: 10.1038/nbt1260] [Citation(s) in RCA: 268] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2006] [Accepted: 10/03/2006] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
N-glycosylation is critical to the function of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) and distinguishes various systems used for their production. We expressed human mAbs in the small aquatic plant Lemna minor, which offers several advantages for manufacturing therapeutic proteins free of zoonotic pathogens. Glycosylation of a mAb against human CD30 was optimized by co-expressing the heavy and light chains of the mAb with an RNA interference construct targeting expression of the endogenous alpha-1,3-fucosyltransferase and beta-1,2-xylosyltransferase genes. The resultant mAbs contained a single major N-glycan species without detectable plant-specific N-glycans and had better antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity and effector cell receptor binding activities than mAbs expressed in cultured Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin M Cox
- Biolex Therapeutics, 158 Credle Street, Pittsboro, North Carolina 27312, USA.
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48
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Rosenfeld R, Bangio H, Gerwig GJ, Rosenberg R, Aloni R, Cohen Y, Amor Y, Plaschkes I, Kamerling JP, Maya RBY. A lectin array-based methodology for the analysis of protein glycosylation. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006; 70:415-26. [PMID: 17112594 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbbm.2006.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2006] [Revised: 09/17/2006] [Accepted: 09/17/2006] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Glycosylation is the most versatile and one of the most abundant protein modifications. It has a structural role as well as diverse functional roles in many specific biological functions, including cancer development, viral and bacterial infections, and autoimmunity. The diverse roles of glycosylation in biological processes are rapidly growing areas of research, however, Glycobiology research is limited by the lack of a technology for rapid analysis of glycan composition of glycoproteins. Currently used methods for glycoanalysis are complex, typically requiring high levels of expertise and days to provide answers, and are not readily available to all researcher. We have developed a lectin array-based method, Qproteome GlycoArray kits, for rapid analysis of glycosylation profiles of glycoproteins. Glycoanalysis is performed on intact glycoproteins, requiring only 4-6 h for most analysis types. The method, demonstrated in this manuscript by several examples, is based on binding of an intact glycoprotein to the arrayed lectins, resulting in a characteristic fingerprint that is highly sensitive to changes in the protein's glycan composition. The large number of lectins, each with its specific recognition pattern, ensures high sensitivity to changes in the glycosylation pattern. A set of proprietary algorithms automatically interpret the fingerprint signals to provide a comprehensive glycan profile output.
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49
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Petruccelli S, Otegui MS, Lareu F, Tran Dinh O, Fitchette AC, Circosta A, Rumbo M, Bardor M, Carcamo R, Gomord V, Beachy RN. A KDEL-tagged monoclonal antibody is efficiently retained in the endoplasmic reticulum in leaves, but is both partially secreted and sorted to protein storage vacuoles in seeds. PLANT BIOTECHNOLOGY JOURNAL 2006; 4:511-27. [PMID: 17309727 DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-7652.2006.00200.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Transgenic plants are attractive biological systems for the large-scale production of pharmaceutical proteins. In particular, seeds offer special advantages, such as ease of handling and long-term stable storage. Nevertheless, most of the studies of the expression of antibodies in plants have been performed in leaves. We report the expression of a secreted (sec-Ab) or KDEL-tagged (Ab-KDEL) mutant of the 14D9 monoclonal antibody in transgenic tobacco leaves and seeds. Although the KDEL sequence has little effect on the accumulation of the antibody in leaves, it leads to a higher antibody yield in seeds. sec-Ab(Leaf) purified from leaf contains complex N-glycans, including Lewis(a) epitopes, as typically found in extracellular glycoproteins. In contrast, Ab-KDEL(Leaf) bears only high-mannose-type oligosaccharides (mostly Man 7 and 8) consistent with an efficient endoplasmic reticulum (ER) retention/cis-Golgi retrieval of the antibody. sec-Ab and Ab-KDEL gamma chains purified from seeds are cleaved by proteases and contain complex N-glycans indicating maturation in the late Golgi compartments. Consistent with glycosylation of the protein, Ab-KDEL(Seed) was partially secreted and sorted to protein storage vacuoles (PSVs) in seeds and not found in the ER. This dual targeting may be due to KDEL-mediated targeting to the PSV and to a partial saturation of the vacuolar sorting machinery. Taken together, our results reveal important differences in the ER retention and vacuolar sorting machinery between leaves and seeds. In addition, we demonstrate that a plant-made antibody with triantennary high-mannose-type N-glycans has similar Fab functionality to its counterpart with biantennary complex N-glycans, but the former antibody interacts with protein A in a stronger manner and is more immunogenic than the latter. Such differences could be related to a variable immunoglobulin G (IgG)-Fc folding that would depend on the size of the N-glycan.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvana Petruccelli
- CIDCA, Fac.Cs Exactas, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, La Plata, Argentina.
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50
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Bakker H, Rouwendal GJA, Karnoup AS, Florack DEA, Stoopen GM, Helsper JPFG, van Ree R, van Die I, Bosch D. An antibody produced in tobacco expressing a hybrid beta-1,4-galactosyltransferase is essentially devoid of plant carbohydrate epitopes. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2006; 103:7577-82. [PMID: 16675551 PMCID: PMC1472489 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0600879103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2006] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
N-glycosylation of a mAb may have a major impact on its therapeutic merits. Here, we demonstrate that expression of a hybrid enzyme (called xylGalT), consisting of the N-terminal domain of Arabidopsis thaliana xylosyltransferase and the catalytic domain of human beta-1,4-galactosyltransferase I (GalT), in tobacco causes a sharp reduction of N-glycans with potentially immunogenic core-bound xylose (Xyl) and fucose (Fuc) residues as shown by Western blot and MALDI-TOF MS analysis. A radioallergosorbent test inhibition assay with proteins purified from leaves of WT and these transgenic tobacco plants using sera from allergic patients suggests a significant reduction of potential immunogenicity of xylGalT proteins. A mAb purified from leaves of plants expressing xylGalT displayed an N-glycan profile that featured high levels of galactose, undetectable xylose, and a trace of fucose. Hence, a transgenic plant expressing the hybrid GalT might yield more effective and safer monoclonals for therapeutic purposes than WT plants and even transgenic plants expressing the unchanged GalT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hans Bakker
- *Business Unit Bioscience, Plant Research International, Wageningen University and Research Center, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, 6708 PB, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Gerard J. A. Rouwendal
- *Business Unit Bioscience, Plant Research International, Wageningen University and Research Center, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, 6708 PB, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Anton S. Karnoup
- Analytical Sciences, The Dow Chemical Company, 1897 Building, Midland, MI 48667
| | - Dion E. A. Florack
- *Business Unit Bioscience, Plant Research International, Wageningen University and Research Center, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, 6708 PB, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Geert M. Stoopen
- *Business Unit Bioscience, Plant Research International, Wageningen University and Research Center, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, 6708 PB, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Johannes P. F. G. Helsper
- *Business Unit Bioscience, Plant Research International, Wageningen University and Research Center, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, 6708 PB, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Ronald van Ree
- Department of Experimental Immunology, Academic Medical Center, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Irma van Die
- Glycoimmunology Group, Department of Molecular Cell Biology and Immunology, VU University Medical Center, van der Boechorststraat 7, 1081 BT, Amsterdam, The Netherlands; and
| | - Dirk Bosch
- *Business Unit Bioscience, Plant Research International, Wageningen University and Research Center, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, 6708 PB, Wageningen, The Netherlands
- **Membrane Enzymology, Department of Chemistry, Utrecht University, Padualaan 8, 3584 CH, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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