Biotin-mediated delivery of exogenous macromolecules into soybean cells

Biotin conjugates in targeted drug delivery: is it mediated by a biotin transporter, a yet to be identified receptor, or (an)other unknown mechanism(s)?

Conjugation of drugs with biotin is a widely studied strategy for targeted drug delivery. The structure-activity relationship (SAR) studies through H3-biotin competition experiments conclude with the presence of a free carboxylic acid being essential for its uptake via the sodium-dependent multivitamin transporter (SMVT, the major biotin transporter). However, biotin conjugation with a payload requires modification of the carboxylic acid to an amide or ester group. Then, there is the question as to how/whether the uptake of biotin conjugates goes through the SMVT. If not, then what is the mechanism? Herein, we present known uptake mechanisms of biotin and its applications reported in the literature. We also critically analyse possible uptake mechanism(s) of biotin conjugates to address the disconnect between the results from SMVT-based SAR and "biotin-facilitated" targeted drug delivery. We believe understanding the uptake mechanism of biotin conjugates is critical for their future applications and further development.

Riboflavin-Targeted Drug Delivery

Active targeting can improve the retention of drugs and drug delivery systems in tumors, thereby enhancing their therapeutic efficacy. In this context, vitamin receptors that are overexpressed in many cancers are promising targets. In the last decade, attention and research were mainly centered on vitamin B9 (folate) targeting; however, the focus is slowly shifting towards vitamin B2 (riboflavin). Interestingly, while the riboflavin carrier protein was discovered in the 1960s, the three riboflavin transporters (RFVT 1-3) were only identified recently. It has been shown that riboflavin transporters and the riboflavin carrier protein are overexpressed in many tumor types, tumor stem cells, and the tumor neovasculature. Furthermore, a clinical study has demonstrated that tumor cells exhibit increased riboflavin metabolism as compared to normal cells. Moreover, riboflavin and its derivatives have been conjugated to ultrasmall iron oxide nanoparticles, polyethylene glycol polymers, dendrimers, and liposomes. These conjugates have shown a high affinity towards tumors in preclinical studies. This review article summarizes knowledge on RFVT expression in healthy and pathological tissues, discusses riboflavin internalization pathways, and provides an overview of RF-targeted diagnostics and therapeutics.

Cell-penetrating peptides: Nanocarrier for macromolecule delivery in living cells

Novel classes and applications of cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) are being constantly discovered since they were first identified 2 decades ago. These short cationic peptides (nanomolecules) either by covalent binding or by noncovalent binding can traverse cell membranes and deliver a variety of molecules that are unable to overcome the permeability barrier in their own capacity. The ability of the CPPs to deliver variety of macromolecules, such as oligonucleotides, therapeutic drugs, proteins, and medical imaging agents, by forming nanoparticulate carriers in a range of cells has led them to emerge as a potential tool for both macromolecule delivery application and to gain insight into the fundamentals of mechanism of cellular uptake across the plasma membrane. This review explores the recent advances, challenges, and future prospects in the field of CPP-mediated cargo delivery in mammalian and plant cells. Studies have been conducted into the peptide chemistry and stability of CPP-macromolecular complexes. Most of the CPPs have been shown to be nontoxic and do not interfere with the functionality of the macromolecules delivered across the cell membrane. The mechanism of uptake of CPP-cargo complexes and the uptake of CPPs alone across the plasma membrane remains unresolved. As the world of CPPs is rapidly advancing in both mammalian and plant system, there is a promising future for the various applications of transduction and transfection into intact cells.

Exogenous free ubiquitin enhances lily pollen tube adhesion to an in vitro stylar matrix and may facilitate endocytosis of SCA

Pollen tube adhesion and guidance on extracellular matrices within the pistil are essential processes that convey the pollen tube cell and the sperm cells to the ovule. In this study, we purified an additional molecule from the pistil that enhances pollen tube adhesion when combined with the SCA (stigma/stylar cysteine-rich adhesin)/pectin matrix in our in vitro assay. The enhancer of adhesion was identified as free ubiquitin (Ub). This was confirmed by use of bovine Ub as a substitute for lily (Lilium longiflorum Thunb.) stigma Ub. To study the interaction of SCA and Ub with the lily pollen tube, we labeled both proteins with biotin. We observed uptake of biotin-labeled SCA and Ub into the pollen tube cells in vitro using confocal microscopy. For SCA, a strong signal occurred first at the tip of the pollen tube, suggestive of an endocytosis event, and then progressively throughout the tube cytoplasm. SCA was also localized inside the in vivo pollen tube using immunogold electron microscopy and found to be present in endosomes, multivesicular bodies, and vacuoles, all known to be endocytic compartments. It was also confirmed that SCA is endocytosed in the in vitro adhesion assay. Internalization of SCA was increased in pollen tubes treated with exogenous Ub compared to those without Ub, suggesting that Ub may facilitate SCA endocytosis. These results show that Ub can act as an enhancer of pollen tube adhesion in vitro and that it is taken up into the pollen tube as is SCA. The Ub machinery may play a role in pollen tube adhesion and guidance in lily.

Plant Prevacuolar/Endosomal Compartments

Multivesicular endosomes or prevacuolar compartments (PVCs) are membrane-bound organelles that play an important role in mediating protein traffic in the secretory and endocytic pathways of eukaryotic cells. PVCs function as an intermediate compartment for sorting proteins from the Golgi apparatus to vacuoles, sending missorted proteins back to the Golgi from the PVC, and receiving proteins from plasma membrane in the endocytic pathway. PVCs have been identified as multivesicular bodies in mammalian cells and yeast and more recently in plant cells. Whereas much is known about PVC-mediated protein trafficking and PVC biogenesis in mammalian cells and yeast, relatively little is known about the molecular mechanism of plant PVCs. In this review, we summarize and discuss our understanding of the plant PVC and compare it with its counterparts in yeast and mammalian cells.

Testing for endocytosis in plants

For many years endocytosis has been regarded with great scepsis by plant physiologists. Although now generally accepted, care must still be taken with experiments designed to demonstrate endocytic uptake at the plasma membrane. We have taken a critical look at the various agents which are in use as markers for plant endocytosis, pointing out pitfalls and precautions which should be taken. We also take this opportunity to introduce the tyrphostins--tyrosine kinase inhibitors--, which also seem to prevent endocytosis in plants.

Targeted worm micelles

Giant and stable worm micelles formed from poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG)-based diblock copolymer amphiphiles have the potential advantage compared to smaller assemblies for delivery of a large quantity of hydrophobic drugs or dyes per carrier. Here we show that worm micelles can be targeted to cells with internalization and delivery of nontoxic dyes as well as cytotoxic drugs. Constituent copolymers are end-biotinylated to mediate high affinity binding of worm micelles to both avidin-bearing surfaces and biotin-specific receptors on smooth muscle cells. Pristine worm micelles, that lack biotin, show much less frequent and nonspecific point attachments to the same surfaces. Biotinylated worm micelles prove stable in aqueous solution for at least a month and also prove capable of loading, retaining, and delivering hydrophobic dyes and drugs. The results thus demonstrate the feasibility of targeted delivery by polymeric worm micelles.

Non-endocytic penetration of core histones into petunia protoplasts and cultured cells: a novel mechanism for the introduction of macromolecules into plant cells

The results of the present work demonstrate that core histones are able to penetrate the plasma membrane of plant cells. Confocal microscopy has revealed that incubation of petunia protoplasts with fluorescently labeled core histones resulted in cell penetration and nuclear import of the externally added histones. Intracellular accumulation was also confirmed by an ELISA-based quantitative method using biotin-labeled histones. Penetration into petunia protoplasts and cultured cells was found to be non-saturable, occurred at room temperature and at 4 degrees C and was not inhibited by Nocodazole. Furthermore, penetration of the biotinylated histone was neither blocked by the addition of an excess of free biotin molecules, nor by non-biotinylated histone molecules. All these results clearly indicate that the observed uptake is due to direct translocation through the cell plasma membrane and does not occur via endocytosis. Our results also show that the histones H2A and H4 were able to mediate penetration of covalently attached BSA molecules demonstrating the potential of the histones as carriers for the delivery of macromolecules into plant cells. To the best of our knowledge, the findings of the present paper demonstrate, for the first time, the activity of cell penetrating proteins (CPPs) in plant cells.

Uptake of endocytic markers by rice cells: variations related to the growth phase

Endocytosis is now considered a basic cellular process common to plant cells. Although both non-specific and receptor-mediated endocytosis appear to take place in plant cells, the physiological role of the latter remains unclear. We have investigated the endocytic process in rice cell suspensions using two biotinylated proteins, peroxidase and bovine serum albumin (bHRP and bBSA), as markers. First, we show that markers are internalized by rice cells and appear in intracellular membranes. The uptake of the two markers is temperature dependent, saturable with time and markers dose and it is competed by free biotin. Thus, it shows the properties of a receptor-mediated process. We also show that uptake of markers is strongly influenced by growth phase as optimal uptake occurs during the lag phase, but the initiation of the exponential growth phase decreases uptake drastically. Arrest of the cell cycle by starvation of either a nutrient (phosphate) or a growth regulator (2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid), both components of the culture medium, does not modify the rate of bBSA uptake. Subsequent readdition of these components results in growth recovery and a dramatic decrease in bBSA uptake. On the other hand, nocodazole treatment, a method to arrest the cell cycle by microtubule depolymerization, inhibited bBSA uptake. The possible causes for this arrest of endocytosis are discussed.

Riboflavin-mediated delivery of a macromolecule into cultured human cells

Cell surface receptors for the vitamins folic acid and biotin have been previously reported to mediate the endocytosis of vitamin-conjugated macromolecules into cultured cells. To evaluate whether a similar uptake pathway for riboflavin-conjugated macromolecules might exist, riboflavin was covalently linked to bovine serum albumin (BSA) via the vitamin's ribityl side chain, and uptake of the protein by cultured human cells was examined. Whereas unconjugated BSA was not internalized by KB, A549, SK-LU-1 or SK-OV cells, riboflavin-conjugated BSA was readily internalized (>106 molecules/cell). Analysis of the uptake pathway revealed that the riboflavin-BSA conjugate likely docks on cells at a carrier/transport protein that is distinct from the uptake pathway for free riboflavin and then enters via normal membrane cycling. Evidence for this contention is: (i) the internalized conjugate accumulates in endosomal compartments, (ii) uptake into cells is halted at temperatures near 0 degreesC where membrane trafficking is abrogated, (iii) cell association is inhibited by unlabeled riboflavin-BSA, but not by free riboflavin, and (iv) cellular uptake of [3H]riboflavin is only partially inhibited by riboflavin-BSA. Regardless of the pathway of internalization, these data demonstrate that riboflavin conjugation can facilitate protein entry into human cells in culture.

Roots and the delivery of solutes to the xylem

The structural features of the pathways followed by solutes and water are described. The porous nature of the cell walls comprising the apoplasm is described and the difficulties in verifying the passage of water through different parts of the apoplasm are discussed. The endoderm is of ubiquitous occurrence and has two invariant characteristics, a girdle-like wall thickening, the Casparian band, and the attachment of the plasma membrane to the band. Suggestions are made concerning the constraints placed on the passage of materials in the stele by these structures. The hypodermis is also a very common structure which shares a number of properties seen in the endodermis. The implications of an apoplasmic barrier in the hypodermis are discussed. The plasmodesmata are the key structural feature of the symplasmic pathway and recent information makes it clear that the size of the pores in the neck region can vary with the physiological state and position of tissues. The symplasmic pathway seems not to be interrupted by structural developments which make the endodermis an apoplasmic barrier of high resistance. Recent information from transpiring plants indicates that the turgor pressure in cortical cells increases centripetally: there is, therefore an outwardly directed hydrostatic pressure gradient. The implications of these new findings for water and solute flows in the symplast are considered. The final step in the radial transfer of materials is their release into the xylem. There is evidence that stelar tissues contain an H+-translocating ATPase whose activity can be influenced by physiological factors. It is pointed out that there may be major changes in the concentration of K+in xylem sap during a day-night cycle which may influence the polarization of the cell membranes of xylem parenchyma and the opening of ion-channels. The xylem elements themselves are not always fully conductive, even when their final diameter has been reached. The protoplasts and cross walls may be more persistent than is usually assumed, especially in soil-grown roots. Because of the low activity of Ca2+in the cytoplasm and the discontinuity of compartments within cells which contain abundant free Ca2+, this ion probably moves radially primarily by diffusion in the apoplasm. The transfer of Ca+2across the endodermis is shown to depend on the activity of Ca2+ATPase in the plasma membrane of the stelar side of the endodermis, emphasising once again the epithelial nature of this cell layer.

Characterization of parameters influencing receptor-mediated endocytosis in cultured soybean cells

In a recent publication, we were able to demonstrate that biotin enters plant cells by receptor-mediated endocytosis and that impermeable macromolecules can be cotransported into cells by the same pathway if they are first covalently linked to biotin. In the present study, we have exploited the biotin endocytosis pathway to evaluate the variables in the cell wall and surrounding growth medium that influence the efficiency of endocytosis in plants. Under normal growth conditions, the major constraint limiting macromolecule endocytosis was found to be the size of the internalized macromolecule. Thus, a log-linear relationship with a negative slope exists between the molecular weight of the biotin-conjugated macromolecule and its rate of internalization by cultured soybean cells. This relationship, which extends from insulin (M(r) approximately 5700) to immunoglobulin G (M(r) approximately 160,000), is characterized by a slope of -1.04 x 10(5) molecules/cell/min per log M(r) unit and an x intercept (no endocytosis detectable) of approximately log 160,000 daltons. Unfortunately, mild digestion with cell wall-degrading enzymes is unable to increase significantly the upper size limit of molecules that can be internalized, but uptake of lower molecular weight proteins can be enhanced by mild cell wall digestion. The optimal extracellular pH for endocytosis was found to be 4.6, i.e. near the normal pH of the cell culture medium. Furthermore, the osmotic strength at which endocytosis occurs most rapidly was observed to be isotonic to slightly hypotonic, suggesting that turgor pressure within the plant cell must not be a major determinant of endocytosis rates by cultured soybean (Glycine max) cells. Finally, cell age was found to impact significantly on the rate of macromolecule internalization, with maximal uptake rates occurring during early exponential growth and decreasing by a factor of 2 when the cells reach stationary growth phase.

Delivery of macromolecules into living cells: a method that exploits folate receptor endocytosis

Difficulties with the nondestructive delivery of macromolecules into living cells have limited the potential applications of antibodies, genes, enzymes, peptides, and antisense oligonucleotides in biology and medicine. We have found, however, that the natural endocytosis pathway for the vitamin folate can be exploited to nondestructively introduce macromolecules into cultured cells if the macromolecule is first covalently linked to folate. Thus, treatment of KB cells with folate-conjugated ribonuclease, horseradish peroxidase, serum albumin, IgG, or ferritin allowed delivery of greater than 10(6) copies of the macromolecules within a 2-hr period. Cytochemical staining using 4-chloro-1-naphthol further demonstrated that the horseradish peroxidase retained activity for at least 6 hr after internalization. Since folate is an essential vitamin required in substantial quantities by virtually all cells, these observations may open the possibility of scientific and medical applications for many of the above macromolecules.