A description of the structural determination procedures of a gap junction channel at 3.5 A resolution

Structure and Functions of Gap Junctions and Their Constituent Connexins in the Mammalian CNS

Numerous data obtained in the last 20 years indicate that all parts of the mature central nervous system, from the retina and olfactory bulb to the spinal cord and brain, contain cells connected by gap junctions (GJs). The morphological basis of the GJs is a group of joined membrane hemichannels called connexons, the subunit of each connexon is the protein connexin. In the central nervous system, connexins show specificity and certain types of them are expressed either in neurons or in glial cells. Connexins and GJs of neurons, combining certain types of inhibitory hippocampal and neocortical neuronal ensembles, provide synchronization of local impulse and rhythmic activity, thalamocortical conduction, control of excitatory connections, which reflects their important role in the processes of perception, concentration of attention and consolidation of memory, both on the cellular and at the system level. Connexins of glial cells are ubiquitously expressed in the brain, and the GJs formed by them provide molecular signaling and metabolic cooperation and play a certain role in the processes of neuronal migration during brain development, myelination, tissue homeostasis, and apoptosis. At the same time, mutations in the genes of glial connexins, as well as a deficiency of these proteins, are associated with such diseases as congenital neuropathies, hearing loss, skin diseases, and brain tumors. This review summarizes the existing data of numerous molecular, electrophysiological, pharmacological, and morphological studies aimed at progress in the study of the physiological and pathophysiological significance of glial and neuronal connexins and GJs for the central nervous system.

Differential Domain Distribution of gnomAD- and Disease-Linked Connexin Missense Variants

Twenty-one human genes encode connexins, a family of homologous proteins making gap junction (GJ) channels, which mediate direct intercellular communication to synchronize tissue/organ activities. Genetic variants in more than half of the connexin genes are associated with dozens of different Mendelian inherited diseases. With rapid advances in DNA sequencing technology, more variants are being identified not only in families and individuals with diseases but also in people in the general population without any apparent linkage to Mendelian inherited diseases. Nevertheless, it remains challenging to classify the pathogenicity of a newly identified connexin variant. Here, we analyzed the disease- and Genome Aggregation Database (gnomAD, as a proxy of the general population)-linked variants in the coding region of the four disease-linked α connexin genes. We found that the most abundant and position-sensitive missense variants showed distinct domain distribution preference between disease- and gnomAD-linked variants. Plotting missense variants on topological and structural models revealed that disease-linked missense variants are highly enriched on the structurally stable/resolved domains, especially the pore-lining domains, while the gnomAD-linked missense variants are highly enriched in the structurally unstable/unresolved domains, especially the carboxyl terminus. In addition, disease-linked variants tend to be on highly conserved residues and those positions show evolutionary co-variation, while the gnomAD-linked missense variants are likely on less conserved residue positions and on positions without co-variation. Collectively, the revealed distribution patterns of disease- and gnomAD-linked missense variants further our understanding of the GJ structure–biological function relationship, which is valuable for classifying the pathogenicity of newly identified connexin variants.

Variants with increased negative electrostatic potential in the Cx50 gap junction pore increased unitary channel conductance and magnesium modulation

Gap junction (GJ) channels are oligomers of connexins forming channels linking neighboring cells. GJs formed by different connexins show distinct unitary channel conductance (γj), transjunctional voltage-dependent gating (Vj-gating) properties, and modulation by intracellular magnesium ([Mg2+]i). The underlying molecular determinants are not fully clear. Previous experimental evidence indicates that residues in the amino terminal (NT) and initial segment of the first extracellular (E1) domain influence the γj, Vj-gating, and/or [Mg2+]i modulation in several GJs. Increasing negatively charged residues in Cx50 (connexin50) E1 (G46D or G46E) increased γj, while increasing positively charged residue (G46K) reduced the γj Sequence alignment of Cx50 and Cx37 in the NT and E1 domains revealed that in Cx50 G8 and V53, positions are negatively charged residues in Cx37 (E8 and E53, respectively). To evaluate these residues together, we generated a triple variant in Cx50, G8E, G46E, and V53E simultaneously to study its γj, Vj-gating properties, and modulation by [Mg2+]i Our data indicate that the triple variant and individual variants G8E, G46E, and V53E significantly increased Cx50 GJ γj without a significant change in the Vj gating. In addition, elevated [Mg2+]i reduced γj in Cx50 and all the variant GJs. These results and our homology structural models suggest that these NT/E1 residues are likely to be pore-lining and the variants increased the negative electrostatic potentials along the GJ pore to facilitate the γj of this cation-preferring GJ channel. Our results indicate that electrostatic properties of the Cx50 GJ pore are important for the γj and the [Mg2+]i modulation.

Direct visualization of interaction between calmodulin and connexin45

Calmodulin (CaM) is an intracellular Ca²⁺ transducer involved in numerous activities in a broad Ca²⁺ signaling network. Previous studies have suggested that the Ca²⁺/CaM complex may participate in gap junction regulation via interaction with putative CaM-binding motifs in connexins; however, evidence of direct interactions between CaM and connexins has remained elusive to date due to challenges related to the study of membrane proteins. Here, we report the first direct interaction of CaM with Cx45 (connexin45) of γ-family in living cells under physiological conditions by monitoring bioluminescence resonance energy transfer. The interaction between CaM and Cx45 in cells is strongly dependent on intracellular Ca²⁺ concentration and can be blocked by the CaM inhibitor, N-(6-aminohexyl)-5-chloro-1-naphthalenesulfonamide hydrochloride (W7). We further reveal a CaM-binding site at the cytosolic loop (residues 164-186) of Cx45 using a peptide model. The strong binding (K_d ∼ 5 nM) observed between CaM and Cx45 peptide, monitored by fluorescence-labeled CaM, is found to be Ca²⁺-dependent. Furthermore, high-resolution nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy reveals that CaM and Cx45 peptide binding leads to global chemical shift changes of ¹⁵N-labeled CaM, but does not alter the size of the structure. Observations involving both N- and C-domains of CaM to interact with the Cx45 peptide differ from the embraced interaction with Cx50 from another connexin family. Such interaction further increases Ca²⁺ sensitivity of CaM, especially at the N-terminal domain. Results of the present study suggest that both helicity and the interaction mode of the cytosolic loop are likely to contribute to CaM's modulation of connexins.

Crucial motifs and residues in the extracellular loops influence the formation and specificity of connexin docking

Most of the early studies on gap junction (GJ) channel function and docking compatibility were on rodent connexins, while recent research on GJ channels gradually shifted from rodent to human connexins largely due to the fact that mutations in many human connexin genes are found to associate with inherited human diseases. The studies on human connexins have revealed some key differences from those found in rodents, calling for a comprehensive characterization of human GJ channels. Functional studies revealed that docking and formation of functional GJ channels between two hemichannels are possible only between docking-compatible connexins. Two groups of docking-compatible rodent connexins have been identified. Compatibility is believed to be due to their amino acid residue differences at the extracellular loop domains (E1 and E2). Sequence alignment of the E1 and E2 domains of all connexins known to make GJs revealed that they are highly conserved and show high sequence identity with human Cx26, which is the only connexin with near atomic resolution GJ structure. We hypothesize that different connexins have a similar structure as that of Cx26 at the E1 and E2 domains and use the corresponding residues in their E1 and E2 domains for docking. Based on the Cx26 GJ structure and sequence analysis of well-studied connexins, we propose that the E1-E1 docking interactions are staggered with each E1 interacting with two E1s on the docked connexon. The putative E1 docking residues are conserved in both docking-compatible and -incompatible connexins, indicating that E1 does not likely serve a role in docking compatibility. However, in the case of E2-E2 docking interactions, the putative docking residues are only conserved within the docking-compatible connexins, suggesting the E2 is likely to serve the function of docking compatibility. Docking compatibility studies on human connexins have attracted a lot of attention due to the fact that putative docking residues are mutational hotspots for several connexin-linked human diseases. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Gap Junction Proteins edited by Jean Claude Herve.

Characterization of the Tetraspan Junctional Complex (4JC) superfamily

Connexins or innexins form gap junctions, while claudins and occludins form tight junctions. In this study, statistical data, derived using novel software, indicate that these four junctional protein families and eleven other families of channel and channel auxiliary proteins are related by common descent and comprise the Tetraspan (4 TMS) Junctional Complex (4JC) Superfamily. These proteins all share similar 4 transmembrane α-helical (TMS) topologies. Evidence is presented that they arose via an intragenic duplication event, whereby a 2 TMS-encoding genetic element duplicated tandemly to give 4 TMS proteins. In cases where high resolution structural data were available, the conclusion of homology was supported by conducting structural comparisons. Phylogenetic trees reveal the probable relationships of these 15 families to each other. Long homologues containing fusions to other recognizable domains as well as internally duplicated or fused domains are reported. Large "fusion" proteins containing 4JC domains proved to fall predominantly into family-specific patterns as follows: (1) the 4JC domain was N-terminal; (2) the 4JC domain was C-terminal; (3) the 4JC domain was duplicated or occasionally triplicated and (4) mixed fusion types were present. Our observations provide insight into the evolutionary origins and subfunctions of these proteins as well as guides concerning their structural and functional relationships.

Engineered Cx26 variants established functional heterotypic Cx26/Cx43 and Cx26/Cx40 gap junction channels

Gap junction (GJ) channels mediate direct intercellular communication and are composed of two docked hemichannels (connexin oligomers). It is well documented that the docking and formation of GJs are possible only between compatible hemichannels (or connexins). The mechanisms of heterotypic docking compatibility are not fully clear. We aligned the protein sequences of docking-compatible and -incompatible connexins with that of connexin26 (Cx26). We found that two docking hydrogen bond (HB)-forming residues on the second extracellular domain (E2) of Cx26 and their equivalent residues are well conserved within docking-compatible connexins, but different between docking-incompatible connexins. Replacing one or both of these residues of Cx26 into the corresponding residues in the docking incompatible connexins (K168V, N176H or K168V-N176H) increased the formation of morphological and functional heterotypic GJs with connexin43 (Cx43) or connexin40 (Cx40), indicating that these two residues are important for docking incompatibility between Cx26 and these connexins. Our homology structure models predict that both HBs and hydrophobic interactions at the E2 docking interface are important docking mechanisms in heterotypic Cx26 K168V-N176H/Cx43 GJs and probably other docking compatible connexins. Revealing the key residues and mechanisms of heterotypic docking compatibility will assist us in understanding why these putative docking residues are hotspots of disease-linked mutants.

Engineered Cx40 variants increased docking and function of heterotypic Cx40/Cx43 gap junction channels

Gap junction (GJ) channels provide low resistance passages for rapid action potential propagation in the heart. Both connexin40 (Cx40) and Cx43 are abundantly expressed in and frequently co-localized between atrial myocytes, possibly forming heterotypic GJ channels. However, conflicting results have been obtained on the functional status of heterotypic Cx40/Cx43 GJs. Here we provide experimental evidence that the docking and formation of heterotypic Cx40/Cx43 GJs can be substantially increased by designed Cx40 variants on the extracellular domains (E1 and E2). Specifically, Cx40 D55N and P193Q, substantially increased the probability to form GJ plaque-like structures at the cell-cell interfaces with Cx43 in model cells. More importantly the coupling conductance (Gj) of D55N/Cx43 and P193Q/Cx43 GJ channels are significantly increased from the Gj of Cx40/Cx43 in N2A cells. Our homology models indicate the electrostatic interactions and surface structures at the docking interface are key factors preventing Cx40 from docking to Cx43. Improving heterotypic Gj of these atrial connexins might be potentially useful in improving the coupling and synchronization of atrial myocardium.

Structural analysis of key gap junction domains--Lessons from genome data and disease-linked mutants

A gap junction (GJ) channel is formed by docking of two GJ hemichannels and each of these hemichannels is a hexamer of connexins. All connexin genes have been identified in human, mouse, and rat genomes and their homologous genes in many other vertebrates are available in public databases. The protein sequences of these connexins align well with high sequence identity in the same connexin across different species. Domains in closely related connexins and several residues in all known connexins are also well-conserved. These conserved residues form signatures (also known as sequence logos) in these domains and are likely to play important biological functions. In this review, the sequence logos of individual connexins, groups of connexins with common ancestors, and all connexins are analyzed to visualize natural evolutionary variations and the hot spots for human disease-linked mutations. Several gap junction domains are homologous, likely forming similar structures essential for their function. The availability of a high resolution Cx26 GJ structure and the subsequently-derived homology structure models for other connexin GJ channels elevated our understanding of sequence logos at the three-dimensional GJ structure level, thus facilitating the understanding of how disease-linked connexin mutants might impair GJ structure and function. This knowledge will enable the design of complementary variants to rescue disease-linked mutants.

The First Extracellular Domain Plays an Important Role in Unitary Channel Conductance of Cx50 Gap Junction Channels

Gap junction (GJ) channels provide direct passage for ions and small molecules to be exchanged between neighbouring cells and are crucial for many physiological processes. GJ channels can be gated by transjunctional voltage (known as Vj-gating) and display a wide range of unitary channel conductance (γj), yet the domains responsible for Vj-gating and γj are not fully clear. The first extracellular domain (E1) of several connexins has been shown to line part of their GJ channel pore and play important roles in Vj-gating properties and/or ion permeation selectivity. To test roles of the E1 of Cx50 GJ channels, we generated a chimera, Cx50Cx36E1, where the E1 domain of Cx50 was replaced with that of Cx36, a connexin showing quite distinct Vj-gating and γj from those of Cx50. Detailed characterizations of the chimera and three point mutants in E1 revealed that, although the E1 domain is important in determining γj, the E1 domain of Cx36 is able to effectively function within the context of the Cx50 channel with minor changes in Vj-gating properties, indicating that sequence differences between the E1 domains in Cx36 and Cx50 cannot account for their drastic differences in Vj-gating and γj. Our homology models of the chimera and the E1 mutants revealed that electrostatic properties of the pore-lining residues and their contribution to the electric field in the pore are important factors for the rate of ion permeation of Cx50 and possibly other GJ channels.

Extracellular domains play different roles in gap junction formation and docking compatibility

GJ (gap junction) channels mediate direct intercellular communication and play an important role in many physiological processes. Six connexins oligomerize to form a hemichannel and two hemichannels dock together end-to-end to form a GJ channel. Connexin extracellular domains (E1 and E2) have been shown to be important for the docking, but the molecular mechanisms behind the docking and formation of GJ channels are not clear. Recent developments in atomic GJ structure and functional studies on a series of connexin mutants revealed that E1 and E2 are likely to play different roles in the docking. Non-covalent interactions at the docking interface, including hydrogen bonds, are predicted to form between interdocked extracellular domains. Protein sequence alignment analysis on the docking compatible/incompatible connexins indicate that the E1 domain is important for the formation of the GJ channel and the E2 domain is important in the docking compatibility in heterotypic channels. Interestingly, the hydrogen-bond forming or equivalent residues in both E1 and E2 domains are mutational hot spots for connexin-linked human diseases. Understanding the molecular mechanisms of GJ docking can assist us to develop novel strategies in rescuing the disease-linked connexin mutants.

Gap junction regulation by calmodulin

Intracellular Ca(2+) activated calmodulin (CaM) inhibits gap junction channels in the low nanomolar to high micromolar range of [Ca(2+)]i. This regulation plays an essential role in numerous cellular processes that include hearing, lens transparency, and synchronized contractions of the heart. Previous studies have indicated that gap junction mediated cell-to-cell communication was inhibited by CaM antagonists. More recent evidence indicates a direct role of CaM in regulating several members of the connexin family. Since the intracellular loop and carboxyl termini of connexins are largely "invisible" in electron microscopy and X-ray crystallographic structures due to disorder in these domains, peptide models encompassing the putative CaM binding sites of several intracellular domains of connexins have been used to identify the Ca(2+)-dependent CaM binding sites of these proteins. This approach has been used to determine the CaM binding affinities of peptides derived from a number of different connexin-subfamilies.

Functional roles of the amino terminal domain in determining biophysical properties of Cx50 gap junction channels

Communication through gap junction channels is essential for synchronized and coordinated cellular activities. The gap junction channel pore size, its switch control for opening/closing, and the modulations by chemicals can be different depending on the connexin subtypes that compose the channel. Recent structural and functional studies provide compelling evidence that the amino terminal (NT) domains of several connexins line the pore of gap junction channels and play an important role in single channel conductance (γ j ) and transjunctional voltage-dependent gating (V j -gating). This article reviews recent studies conducted on a series of mutations/chimeras in the NT domain of connexin50 (Cx50). Functional examination of the gap junction channels formed by these mutants/chimeras shows the net charge number at the NT domain to be an important factor in γ j and in V j -gating. Furthermore, with an increase in the net negative charge at the NT domain, we observed an increase in the γ j as well as changes in the parameters of the Boltzmann fit of the normalized steady-state conductance and V j relationship. Our data are consistent with a structural model where the NT domain of Cx50 lines the gap junction pore and plays an important role in sensing V j and in the subsequent conformational changes leading to gating, as well as in limiting the rate of ion permeation.

A mechanism of gap junction docking revealed by functional rescue of a human-disease-linked connexin mutant

Gap junctions are unique intercellular channels formed by the proper docking of two hemichannels from adjacent cells. Each hemichannel is a hexamer of connexins (Cxs) - the gap junction subunits, which are encoded by 21 homologous genes in the human genome. The docking of two hemichannels to form a functional gap junction channel is only possible between compatible Cxs, but the underlying molecular mechanism is unclear. On the basis of the crystal structure of the Cx26 gap junction, we developed homology models for homotypic and heterotypic channels from Cx32 and/or Cx26; these models predict six hydrogen bonds at the docking interface of each pair of the second extracellular domain (E2). A Cx32 mutation N175H and a human-disease-linked mutant N175D were predicted to lose the majority of the hydrogen bonds at the E2 docking-interface; experimentally both mutations failed to form morphological and functional gap junctions. To restore the lost hydrogen bonds, two complementary Cx26 mutants - K168V and K168A were designed to pair with the Cx32 mutants. When docked with Cx26K168V or K168A, the Cx32N175H mutant was successfully rescued morphologically and functionally in forming gap junction channels, but not Cx32 mutant N175Y. By testing more homotypic and heterotypic Cx32 and/or Cx26 mutant combinations, it is revealed that a minimum of four hydrogen bonds at each E2-docking interface are required for proper docking and functional channel formation between Cx26 and Cx32 hemichannels. Interestingly, the disease-linked Cx32N175D could be rescued by Cx26D179N, which restored five hydrogen bonds at the E2-docking interface. Our findings not only provide a mechanism for gap junction docking for Cx26 and Cx32 hemichannels, but also a potential therapeutic strategy for gap junction channelopathies.

A high-throughput assay for connexin 43 (Cx43, GJA1) gap junctions using codon-optimized aequorin

Gap junctions (GJs) are intercellular channels which are composed of the connexin family of proteins that allow electrical and chemical communications and synchronization in tissue ensembles. Evidence suggests that pharmaceutical modulators of these channels may have therapeutic potential or carry undesired liability. In this report, we exogenously expressed human connexin 43 (Cx43, GJA1) and demonstrated functionality in a 96-well flow cytometry assay detecting intercellular transfer of the calcein dye. We have designed a 384-well high-throughput method for detecting the transfer of calcium between HeLa cells expressing Cx43. In this assay, donor cells coexpress Cx43 and the α1A adrenergic Gα-coupled receptor, while recipient cells coexpress Cx43 and the cytoplasmic version of the calcium-sensitive luminescent protein aequorin enhanced by codon optimization (cytoAeq). The two cell populations were mixed, dispensed to 384-well plates, and incubated for 3 h to allow the formation of GJs. Activation of α1A by epinephrine in donor cells led to dose-dependent calcium increases in recipient cells, which were detected by measuring the intensity of aequorin luminescence. The response was dependent on the expression of Cx43 and inhibited by the GJ blocker 18α-glycyrrhetinic acid, suggesting Cx43 GJ-mediated activity. In a parallel experiment with capsaicin and the TrpV1 ion channel in place of phenylephrine and α1A, a similar magnitude of difference in the maximal calcium response was detected in both donor and recipient cells, suggesting that calcium is likely the permeant ion through the GJ. This assay may pave the way for high-throughput screening of GJ modulators for drug discovery.

Paracrine signaling through plasma membrane hemichannels

Plasma membrane hemichannels composed of connexin (Cx) proteins are essential components of gap junction channels but accumulating evidence suggests functions of hemichannels beyond the communication provided by junctional channels. Hemichannels not incorporated into gap junctions, called unapposed hemichannels, can open in response to a variety of signals, electrical and chemical, thereby forming a conduit between the cell's interior and the extracellular milieu. Open hemichannels allow the bidirectional passage of ions and small metabolic or signaling molecules of below 1-2kDa molecular weight. In addition to connexins, hemichannels can also be formed by pannexin (Panx) proteins and current evidence suggests that Cx26, Cx32, Cx36, Cx43 and Panx1, form hemichannels that allow the diffusive release of paracrine messengers. In particular, the case is strong for ATP but substantial evidence is also available for other messengers like glutamate and prostaglandins or metabolic substances like NAD(+) or glutathione. While this field is clearly in expansion, evidence is still lacking at essential points of the paracrine signaling cascade that includes not only messenger release, but also downstream receptor signaling and consequent functional effects. The data available at this moment largely derives from in vitro experiments and still suffers from the difficulty of separating the functions of connexin-based hemichannels from gap junctions and from pannexin hemichannels. However, messengers like ATP or glutamate have universal roles in the body and further defining the contribution of hemichannels as a possible release pathway is expected to open novel avenues for better understanding their contribution to a variety of physiological and pathological processes. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: The Communicating junctions, roles and dysfunctions.

Increasing the X-ray diffraction power of protein crystals by dehydration: the case of bovine serum albumin and a survey of literature data

Serum albumin is one of the most widely studied proteins. It is the most abundant protein in plasma with a typical concentration of 5 g/100 mL and the principal transporter of fatty acids in plasma. While the crystal structures of human serum albumin (HSA) free and in complex with fatty acids, hemin, and local anesthetics have been characterized, no crystallographic models are available on bovine serum albumin (BSA), presumably because of the poor diffraction power of existing hexagonal BSA crystals. Here, the crystallization and diffraction data of a new BSA crystal form, obtained by the hanging drop method using MPEG 5K as precipitating agent, are presented. The crystals belong to space group C2, with unit-cell parameters a = 216.45 Å, b = 44.72 Å, c = 140.18 Å, β = 114.5°. Dehydration was found to increase the diffraction limit of BSA crystals from ~8 Å to 3.2 Å, probably by improving the packing of protein molecules in the crystal lattice. These results, together with a survey of more than 60 successful cases of protein crystal dehydration, confirm that it can be a useful procedure to be used in initial screening as a method of improving the diffraction limits of existing crystals.

Asparagine 175 of connexin32 is a critical residue for docking and forming functional heterotypic gap junction channels with connexin26

The gap junction channel is formed by proper docking of two hemichannels. Depending on the connexin(s) in the hemichannels, homotypic and heterotypic gap junction channels can be formed. Previous studies suggest that the extracellular loop 2 (E2) is an important molecular domain for heterotypic compatibility. Based on the crystal structure of the Cx26 gap junction channel and homology models of heterotypic channels, we analyzed docking selectivity for several hemichannel pairs and found that the hydrogen bonds between E2 domains are conserved in a group of heterotypically compatible hemichannels, including Cx26 and Cx32 hemichannels. According to our model analysis, Cx32N175Y mutant destroys three hydrogen bonds in the E2-E2 interactions due to steric hindrance at the heterotypic docking interface, which makes it unlikely to dock with the Cx26 hemichannel properly. Our experimental data showed that Cx26-red fluorescent protein (RFP) and Cx32-GFP were able to traffic to cell-cell interfaces forming gap junction plaques and functional channels in transfected HeLa/N2A cells. However, Cx32N175Y-GFP exhibited mostly intracellular distribution and was occasionally observed in cell-cell junctions. Double patch clamp analysis demonstrated that Cx32N175Y did not form functional homotypic channels, and dye uptake assay indicated that Cx32N175Y could form hemichannels on the cell surface similar to wild-type Cx32. When Cx32N175Y-GFP- and Cx26-RFP-transfected cells were co-cultured, no colocalization was found at the cell-cell junctions between Cx32N175Y-GFP- and Cx26-RFP-expressing cells; also, no functional Cx32N175Y-GFP/Cx26-RFP heterotypic channels were identified. Both our modeling and experimental data suggest that Asn(175) of Cx32 is a critical residue for heterotypic docking and functional gap junction channel formation between the Cx32 and Cx26 hemichannels.

Structure of the gap junction channel and its implications for its biological functions

Gap junctions consist of arrays of intercellular channels composed of integral membrane proteins called connexin in vertebrates. Gap junction channels regulate the passage of ions and biological molecules between adjacent cells and, therefore, are critically important in many biological activities, including development, differentiation, neural activity, and immune response. Mutations in connexin genes are associated with several human diseases, such as neurodegenerative disease, skin disease, deafness, and developmental abnormalities. The activity of gap junction channels is regulated by the membrane voltage, intracellular microenvironment, interaction with other proteins, and phosphorylation. Each connexin channel has its own property for conductance and molecular permeability. A number of studies have tried to reveal the molecular architecture of the channel pore that should confer the connexin-specific permeability/selectivity properties and molecular basis for the gating and regulation. In this review, we give an overview of structural studies and describe the structural and functional relationship of gap junction channels.

Asymmetric configurations and N-terminal rearrangements in connexin26 gap junction channels

Gap junction channels are unique in that they possess multiple mechanisms for channel closure, several of which involve the N terminus as a key component in gating, and possibly assembly. Here, we present electron crystallographic structures of a mutant human connexin26 (Cx26M34A) and an N-terminal deletion of this mutant (Cx26M34Adel2-7) at 6-Å and 10-Å resolutions, respectively. The three-dimensional map of Cx26M34A was improved by data from 60° tilt images and revealed a breakdown of the hexagonal symmetry in a connexin hemichannel, particularly in the cytoplasmic domain regions at the ends of the transmembrane helices. The Cx26M34A structure contained an asymmetric density in the channel vestibule ("plug") that was decreased in the Cx26M34Adel2-7 structure, indicating that the N terminus significantly contributes to form this plug feature. Functional analysis of the Cx26M34A channels revealed that these channels are predominantly closed, with the residual electrical conductance showing normal voltage gating. N-terminal deletion mutants with and without the M34A mutation showed no electrical activity in paired Xenopus oocytes and significantly decreased dye permeability in HeLa cells. Comparing this closed structure with the recently published X-ray structure of wild-type Cx26, which is proposed to be in an open state, revealed a radial outward shift in the transmembrane helices in the closed state, presumably to accommodate the N-terminal plug occluding the pore. Because both Cx26del2-7 and Cx26M34Adel2-7 channels are closed, the N terminus appears to have a prominent role in stabilizing the open configuration.

Design, synthesis, and properties of branch-chained maltoside detergents for stabilization and crystallization of integral membrane proteins: human connexin 26

A challenging requirement for structural studies of integral membrane proteins (IMPs) is the use of amphiphiles that replicate the hydrophobic environment of membranes. Progress has been impeded by the limited number of useful detergents and the need for a deeper understanding of their structure-activity relationships. To this end, we designed a family of detergents containing short, branched alkyl chains at the interface between the polar head and the apolar tail. This design mimics the second aliphatic chain of lipid molecules and reduces water penetration, thereby increasing the hydrophobicity within the interior of the micelle. To compare with the popular straight-chained maltoside detergents, the branch-chained beta-D-maltosides were synthesized efficiently in pure anomeric form. The branch-chained maltosides form smaller micelles by having shorter main chains, while having comparable hydrophobicity to the detergents with only straight chains. Selected branch-chained and straight-chained maltoside detergents were examined for their ability to solubilize, stabilize, and aid the crystallization of human connexin 26, an alpha-helical IMP that forms hexamers. We showed that the branch-chained maltosides with optimized micellar properties performed as well as or better than the straight-chained analogues and enabled crystallization in different space groups.

Structure determination using poorly diffracting membrane-protein crystals: the H+-ATPase and Na+,K+-ATPase case history

An approach is presented for the structure determination of membrane proteins on the basis of poorly diffracting crystals which exploits molecular replacement for heavy-atom site identification at 6-9 A maximum resolution and improvement of the heavy-atom-derived phases by multi-crystal averaging using quasi-isomorphous data sets. The multi-crystal averaging procedure allows real-space density averaging followed by phase combination between non-isomorphous native data sets to exploit crystal-to-crystal nonisomorphism despite the crystals belonging to the same space group. This approach has been used in the structure determination of H(+)-ATPase and Na(+),K(+)-ATPase using Ca(2+)-ATPase models and its successful application to the Mhp1 symporter using LeuT as a search model is demonstrated.