Expression, purification, crystallization and preliminary X-ray studies of the Ebola VP35 interferon inhibitory domain

A cryptic pocket in Ebola VP35 allosterically controls RNA binding

Protein-protein and protein-nucleic acid interactions are often considered difficult drug targets because the surfaces involved lack obvious druggable pockets. Cryptic pockets could present opportunities for targeting these interactions, but identifying and exploiting these pockets remains challenging. Here, we apply a general pipeline for identifying cryptic pockets to the interferon inhibitory domain (IID) of Ebola virus viral protein 35 (VP35). VP35 plays multiple essential roles in Ebola's replication cycle but lacks pockets that present obvious utility for drug design. Using adaptive sampling simulations and machine learning algorithms, we predict VP35 harbors a cryptic pocket that is allosterically coupled to a key dsRNA-binding interface. Thiol labeling experiments corroborate the predicted pocket and mutating the predicted allosteric network supports our model of allostery. Finally, covalent modifications that mimic drug binding allosterically disrupt dsRNA binding that is essential for immune evasion. Based on these results, we expect this pipeline will be applicable to other proteins.

Structures of Ebola and Reston Virus VP35 Oligomerization Domains and Comparative Biophysical Characterization in All Ebolavirus Species

The multifunctional virion protein 35 (VP35) of ebolaviruses is a critical determinant of virulence and pathogenesis indispensable for viral replication and host innate immune evasion. Essential for VP35 function is homo-oligomerization via a coiled-coil motif. Here we report crystal structures of VP35 oligomerization domains from the prototypic Ebola virus (EBOV) and the non-pathogenic Reston virus (RESTV), together with a comparative biophysical characterization of the domains from all known species of the Ebolavirus genus. EBOV and RESTV VP35 oligomerization domains form bipartite parallel helix bundles with a canonical coiled coil in the N-terminal half and increased plasticity in the highly conserved C-terminal half. The domain assembles into trimers and tetramers in EBOV, whereas it exclusively forms tetramers in all other ebolavirus species. Substitution of coiled-coil leucine residues critical for immune antagonism leads to aberrant oligomerization. A conserved arginine involved in inter-chain salt bridges stabilizes the VP35 oligomerization domain and modulates between coiled-coil oligomeric states.

Identification of Myricetin as an Ebola Virus VP35-Double-Stranded RNA Interaction Inhibitor through a Novel Fluorescence-Based Assay

Ebola virus (EBOV) is a filovirus that causes a severe and rapidly progressing hemorrhagic syndrome; a recent epidemic illustrated the urgent need for novel therapeutic agents because no drugs have been approved for treatment of Ebola virus. A key contribution to the high lethality observed during EBOV outbreaks comes from viral evasion of the host antiviral innate immune response in which viral protein VP35 plays a crucial role, blocking interferon type I production, first by masking the viral double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) and preventing its detection by the pattern recognition receptor RIG-I. Aiming to identify inhibitors of the interaction of VP35 with the viral dsRNA, counteracting the VP35 viral innate immune evasion, we established a new methodology for high-yield recombinant VP35 (rVP35) expression and purification and a novel and robust fluorescence-based rVP35-RNA interaction assay ( Z' factor of 0.69). Taking advantage of such newly established methods, we screened a small library of Sardinian natural extracts, identifying Limonium morisianum as the most potent inhibitor extract. A bioguided fractionation led to the identification of myricetin as the component that can inhibit rVP35-dsRNA interaction with an IC₅₀ value of 2.7 μM. Molecular docking studies showed that myricetin interacts with the highly conserved region of the VP35 RNA binding domain, laying the basis for further structural optimization of potent inhibitors of VP35-dsRNA interaction.

The Ebola virus VP35 protein binds viral immunostimulatory and host RNAs identified through deep sequencing

Ebola virus and Marburg virus are members of the Filovirdae family and causative agents of hemorrhagic fever with high fatality rates in humans. Filovirus virulence is partially attributed to the VP35 protein, a well-characterized inhibitor of the RIG-I-like receptor pathway that triggers the antiviral interferon (IFN) response. Prior work demonstrates the ability of VP35 to block potent RIG-I activators, such as Sendai virus (SeV), and this IFN-antagonist activity is directly correlated with its ability to bind RNA. Several structural studies demonstrate that VP35 binds short synthetic dsRNAs; yet, there are no data that identify viral immunostimulatory RNAs (isRNA) or host RNAs bound to VP35 in cells. Utilizing a SeV infection model, we demonstrate that both viral isRNA and host RNAs are bound to Ebola and Marburg VP35s in cells. By deep sequencing the purified VP35-bound RNA, we identified the SeV copy-back defective interfering (DI) RNA, previously identified as a robust RIG-I activator, as the isRNA bound by multiple filovirus VP35 proteins, including the VP35 protein from the West African outbreak strain (Makona EBOV). Moreover, RNAs isolated from a VP35 RNA-binding mutant were not immunostimulatory and did not include the SeV DI RNA. Strikingly, an analysis of host RNAs bound by wild-type, but not mutant, VP35 revealed that select host RNAs are preferentially bound by VP35 in cell culture. Taken together, these data support a model in which VP35 sequesters isRNA in virus-infected cells to avert RIG-I like receptor (RLR) activation.

Exploring the mechanism how Marburg virus VP35 recognizes and binds dsRNA by molecular dynamics simulations and free energy calculations

Filoviruses often cause terrible infectious disease which has not been successfully dealt with pharmacologically. All filoviruses encode a unique protein termed VP35 which can mask doubled-stranded RNA to deactivate interferon. The interface of VP35-dsRNA would be a feasible target for structure-based antiviral agent design. To explore the essence of VP35-dsRNA interaction, molecular dynamics simulation combined with MM-GBSA calculations were performed on Marburg virus VP35-dsRNA complex and several mutational complexes. The energetic analysis indicates that nonpolar interactions provide the main driving force for the binding process. Although the intermolecular electrostatic interactions play important roles in VP35-dsRNA interaction, the whole polar interactions are unfavorable for binding which result in a low binding affinity. Compared with wild type VP35, the studied mutants F228A, R271A, and K298A have obviously reduced binding free energies with dsRNA reflecting in the reduction of polar or nonpolar interactions. The results also indicate that the loss of binding affinity for one dsRNA strand would abolish the total binding affinity. Three important residues Arg271, Arg294, and Lys298 which makes the largest contribution for binding in VP35 lose their binding affinity significantly in mutants. The uncovering of VP35-dsRNA recognition mechanism will provide some insights for development of antiviral drug.

Marburg virus VP35 can both fully coat the backbone and cap the ends of dsRNA for interferon antagonism

Filoviruses, including Marburg virus (MARV) and Ebola virus (EBOV), cause fatal hemorrhagic fever in humans and non-human primates. All filoviruses encode a unique multi-functional protein termed VP35. The C-terminal double-stranded (ds)RNA-binding domain (RBD) of VP35 has been implicated in interferon antagonism and immune evasion. Crystal structures of the VP35 RBD from two ebolaviruses have previously demonstrated that the viral protein caps the ends of dsRNA. However, it is not yet understood how the expanses of dsRNA backbone, between the ends, are masked from immune surveillance during filovirus infection. Here, we report the crystal structure of MARV VP35 RBD bound to dsRNA. In the crystal structure, molecules of dsRNA stack end-to-end to form a pseudo-continuous oligonucleotide. This oligonucleotide is continuously and completely coated along its sugar-phosphate backbone by the MARV VP35 RBD. Analysis of dsRNA binding by dot-blot and isothermal titration calorimetry reveals that multiple copies of MARV VP35 RBD can indeed bind the dsRNA sugar-phosphate backbone in a cooperative manner in solution. Further, MARV VP35 RBD can also cap the ends of the dsRNA in solution, although this arrangement was not captured in crystals. Together, these studies suggest that MARV VP35 can both coat the backbone and cap the ends, and that for MARV, coating of the dsRNA backbone may be an essential mechanism by which dsRNA is masked from backbone-sensing immune surveillance molecules.

Therapeutics for filovirus infection: traditional approaches and progress towards in silico drug design

INTRODUCTION

Ebolaviruses and marburgviruses cause severe and often lethal human hemorrhagic fevers. As no FDA-approved therapeutics are available for these infections, efforts to discover new therapeutics are important, especially because these pathogens are considered biothreats and emerging infectious diseases. All methods for discovering new therapeutics should be considered, including compound library screening in vitro against virus and in silico structure-based drug design, where possible, if sufficient biochemical and structural information is available.

AREAS COVERED

This review covers the structure and function of filovirus proteins, as they have been reported to date, as well as some of the current antiviral screening approaches. The authors discuss key studies mapping small-molecule modulators that were found through library and in silico screens to potential sites on viral proteins or host proteins involved in virus trafficking and pathogenesis. A description of ebolavirus and marburgvirus diseases and available animal models is also presented.

EXPERT OPINION

To discover novel therapeutics with potent efficacy using sophisticated computational methods, more high-resolution crystal structures of filovirus proteins and more details about the protein functions and host interaction will be required. Current compound screening efforts are finding active antiviral compounds, but an emphasis on discovery research to investigate protein structures and functions enabling in silico drug design would provide another avenue for finding antiviral molecules. Additionally, targeting of protein-protein interactions may be a future avenue for drug discovery since disrupting catalytic sites may not be possible for all proteins.

Basic residues within the ebolavirus VP35 protein are required for its viral polymerase cofactor function

The ebolavirus (EBOV) VP35 protein binds to double-stranded RNA (dsRNA), inhibits host alpha/beta interferon (IFN-α/β) production, and is an essential component of the viral polymerase complex. Structural studies of the VP35 C-terminal IFN inhibitory domain (IID) identified specific structural features, including a central basic patch and a hydrophobic pocket, that are important for dsRNA binding and IFN inhibition. Several other conserved basic residues bordering the central basic patch and a separate cluster of basic residues, called the first basic patch, were also identified. Functional analysis of alanine substitution mutants indicates that basic residues outside the central basic patch are not required for dsRNA binding or for IFN inhibition. However, minigenome assays, which assess viral RNA polymerase complex function, identified these other basic residues to be critical for viral RNA synthesis. Of these, a subset located within the first basic patch is important for VP35-nucleoprotein (NP) interaction, as evidenced by the inability of alanine substitution mutants to coimmunoprecipitate with NP. Therefore, first basic patch residues are likely critical for replication complex formation through interactions with NP. Coimmunoprecipitation studies further demonstrate that the VP35 IID is sufficient to interact with NP and that dsRNA can modulate VP35 IID interactions with NP. Other basic residue mutations that disrupt the VP35 polymerase cofactor function do not affect interaction with NP or with the amino terminus of the viral polymerase. Collectively, these results highlight the importance of conserved basic residues from the EBOV VP35 C-terminal IID and validate the VP35 IID as a potential therapeutic target.

Crystallization and preliminary X-ray analysis of Ebola VP35 interferon inhibitory domain mutant proteins

VP35 is one of seven structural proteins encoded by the Ebola viral genome and mediates viral replication, nucleocapsid formation and host immune suppression. The C-terminal interferon inhibitory domain (IID) of VP35 is critical for dsRNA binding and interferon inhibition. The wild-type VP35 IID structure revealed several conserved residues that are important for dsRNA binding and interferon antagonism. Here, the expression, purification and crystallization of recombinant Zaire Ebola VP35 IID mutants R312A, K319A/R322A and K339A in space groups P6(1)22, P2(1)2(1)2(1) and P2(1), respectively, are described. Diffraction data were collected using synchrotron sources at the Advanced Light Source and the Advanced Photon Source.

Structural and functional characterization of Reston Ebola virus VP35 interferon inhibitory domain

Ebolaviruses are causative agents of lethal hemorrhagic fever in humans and nonhuman primates. Among the filoviruses characterized thus far, Reston Ebola virus (REBOV) is the only Ebola virus that is nonpathogenic to humans despite the fact that REBOV can cause lethal disease in nonhuman primates. Previous studies also suggest that REBOV is less effective at inhibiting host innate immune responses than Zaire Ebola virus (ZEBOV) or Marburg virus. Virally encoded VP35 protein is critical for immune suppression, but an understanding of the relative contributions of VP35 proteins from REBOV and other filoviruses is currently lacking. In order to address this question, we characterized the REBOV VP35 interferon inhibitory domain (IID) using structural, biochemical, and virological studies. These studies reveal differences in double-stranded RNA binding and interferon inhibition between the two species. These observed differences are likely due to increased stability and loss of flexibility in REBOV VP35 IID, as demonstrated by thermal shift stability assays. Consistent with this finding, the 1.71-A crystal structure of REBOV VP35 IID reveals that it is highly similar to that of ZEBOV VP35 IID, with an overall backbone r.m.s.d. of 0.64 A, but contains an additional helical element at the linker between the two subdomains of VP35 IID. Mutations near the linker, including swapping sequences between REBOV and ZEBOV, reveal that the linker sequence has limited tolerance for variability. Together with the previously solved ligand-free and double-stranded-RNA-bound forms of ZEBOV VP35 IID structures, our current studies on REBOV VP35 IID reinforce the importance of VP35 in immune suppression. Functional differences observed between REBOV and ZEBOV VP35 proteins may contribute to observed differences in pathogenicity, but these are unlikely to be the major determinant. However, the high level of similarity in structure and the low tolerance for sequence variability, coupled with the multiple critical roles played by Ebola virus VP35 proteins, highlight the viability of VP35 as a potential target for therapeutic development.

Structural basis for dsRNA recognition and interferon antagonism by Ebola VP35

Ebola viral protein 35 (VP35), encoded by the highly pathogenic Ebola virus, facilitates host immune evasion by antagonizing antiviral signaling pathways, including those initiated by RIG-I-like receptors. Here we report the crystal structure of the Ebola VP35 interferon inhibitory domain (IID) bound to short double-stranded RNA (dsRNA), which together with in vivo results reveals how VP35-dsRNA interactions contribute to immune evasion. Conserved basic residues in VP35 IID recognize the dsRNA backbone, whereas the dsRNA blunt ends are 'end-capped' by a pocket of hydrophobic residues that mimic RIG-I-like receptor recognition of blunt-end dsRNA. Residues critical for RNA binding are also important for interferon inhibition in vivo but not for viral polymerase cofactor function of VP35. These results suggest that simultaneous recognition of dsRNA backbone and blunt ends provides a mechanism by which Ebola VP35 antagonizes host dsRNA sensors and immune responses.

Mutations abrogating VP35 interaction with double-stranded RNA render Ebola virus avirulent in guinea pigs

Ebola virus (EBOV) protein VP35 is a double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) binding inhibitor of host interferon (IFN)-alpha/beta responses that also functions as a viral polymerase cofactor. Recent structural studies identified key features, including a central basic patch, required for VP35 dsRNA binding activity. To address the functional significance of these VP35 structural features for EBOV replication and pathogenesis, two point mutations, K319A/R322A, that abrogate VP35 dsRNA binding activity and severely impair its suppression of IFN-alpha/beta production were identified. Solution nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy and X-ray crystallography reveal minimal structural perturbations in the K319A/R322A VP35 double mutant and suggest that loss of basic charge leads to altered function. Recombinant EBOVs encoding the mutant VP35 exhibit, relative to wild-type VP35 viruses, minimal growth attenuation in IFN-defective Vero cells but severe impairment in IFN-competent cells. In guinea pigs, the VP35 mutant virus revealed a complete loss of virulence. Strikingly, the VP35 mutant virus effectively immunized animals against subsequent wild-type EBOV challenge. These in vivo studies, using recombinant EBOV viruses, combined with the accompanying biochemical and structural analyses directly correlate VP35 dsRNA binding and IFN inhibition functions with viral pathogenesis. Moreover, these studies provide a framework for the development of antivirals targeting this critical EBOV virulence factor.