Conservation of the structure and function of bacterial tryptophan synthases

Exploring the biocatalysis of psilocybin and other tryptamines: Enzymatic pathways, synthetic strategies, and industrial implications

Tryptamines play diverse roles as neurotransmitters and psychoactive compounds found in various organisms. Psilocybin, a notable tryptamine, has garnered attention for its therapeutic potential in treating mental health disorders like depression and anxiety. Despite its promising applications, current extraction methods for psilocybin are labor-intensive and economically limiting. We suggest biocatalysis as a sustainable alternative, leveraging enzymes to synthesize psilocybin and other tryptamines efficiently. By elucidating psilocybin biosynthesis pathways, researchers aim to advance synthetic methodologies and industrial applications. This review underscores the transformative potential of biocatalysis in enhancing our understanding of tryptamine biosynthesis and facilitating the production of high-purity psilocybin and other tryptamines for therapeutic and research use.

A Molecular Dynamics Simulation Study of the Effects of βGln114 Mutation on the Dynamic Behavior of the Catalytic Site of the Tryptophan Synthase

L-tryptophan (l-Trp), a vital amino acid for the survival of various organisms, is synthesized by the enzyme tryptophan synthase (TS) in organisms such as eubacteria, archaebacteria, protista, fungi, and plantae. TS, a pyridoxal 5'-phosphate (PLP)-dependent enzyme, comprises α and β subunits that typically form an α2β2 tetramer. The enzyme's activity is regulated by the conformational switching of its α and β subunits between the open (T state) and closed (R state) conformations. Many microorganisms rely on TS for growth and replication, making the enzyme and the l-Trp biosynthetic pathway potential drug targets. For instance, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Chlamydiae bacteria, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Francisella tularensis, Salmonella bacteria, and Cryptosporidium parasitic protozoa depend on l-Trp synthesis. Antibiotic-resistant salmonella strains have emerged, underscoring the need for novel drugs targeting the l-Trp biosynthetic pathway, especially for salmonella-related infections. A single amino acid mutation can significantly impact enzyme function, affecting stability, conformational dynamics, and active or allosteric sites. These changes influence interactions, catalytic activity, and protein-ligand/protein-protein interactions. This study focuses on the impact of mutating the βGln114 residue on the catalytic and allosteric sites of TS. Extensive molecular dynamics simulations were conducted on E(PLP), E(AEX1), E(A-A), and E(C3) forms of TS using the WT, βQ114A, and βQ114N versions. The results show that both the βQ114A and βQ114N mutations increase protein backbone root mean square deviation fluctuations, destabilizing all TS forms. Conformational and hydrogen bond analyses suggest the significance of βGln114 drifting away from cofactor/intermediates and forming hydrogen bonds with water molecules necessary for l-Trp biosynthesis. The βQ114A mutation creates a gap between βAla114 and cofactor/intermediates, hindering hydrogen bond formation due to short side chains and disrupting β-sites. Conversely, the βQ114N mutation positions βAsn114 closer to cofactor/intermediates, forming hydrogen bonds with O3 of cofactors/intermediates and nearby water molecules, potentially disrupting the l-Trp biosynthetic mechanism.

Fungi Tryptophan Synthases: What Is the Role of the Linker Connecting the α and β Structural Domains in Hemileia vastatrix TRPS? A Molecular Dynamics Investigation

Tryptophan synthase (TRPS) is a complex enzyme responsible for tryptophan biosynthesis. It occurs in bacteria, plants, and fungi as an αββα heterotetramer. Although encoded by independent genes in bacteria and plants, in fungi, TRPS is generated by a single gene that concurrently expresses the α and β entities, which are linked by an elongated peculiar segment. We conducted 1 µs all-atom molecular dynamics simulations on Hemileia vastatrix TRPS to address two questions: (i) the role of the linker segment and (ii) the comparative mode of action. Since there is not an experimental structure, we started our simulations with homology modeling. Based on the results, it seems that TRPS makes use of an already-existing tunnel that can spontaneously move the indole moiety from the α catalytic pocket to the β one. Such behavior was completely disrupted in the simulation without the linker. In light of these results and the αβ dimer's low stability, the full-working TRPS single genes might be the result of a particular evolution. Considering the significant losses that Hemileia vastatrix causes to coffee plantations, our next course of action will be to use the TRPS to look for substances that can block tryptophan production and therefore control the disease.

Meta-QTL analysis in wheat: progress, challenges and opportunities

Wheat, an important cereal crop globally, faces major challenges due to increasing global population and changing climates. The production and productivity are challenged by several biotic and abiotic stresses. There is also a pressing demand to enhance grain yield and quality/nutrition to ensure global food and nutritional security. To address these multifaceted concerns, researchers have conducted numerous meta-QTL (MQTL) studies in wheat, resulting in the identification of candidate genes that govern these complex quantitative traits. MQTL analysis has successfully unraveled the complex genetic architecture of polygenic quantitative traits in wheat. Candidate genes associated with stress adaptation have been pinpointed for abiotic and biotic traits, facilitating targeted breeding efforts to enhance stress tolerance. Furthermore, high-confidence candidate genes (CGs) and flanking markers to MQTLs will help in marker-assisted breeding programs aimed at enhancing stress tolerance, yield, quality and nutrition. Functional analysis of these CGs can enhance our understanding of intricate trait-related genetics. The discovery of orthologous MQTLs shared between wheat and other crops sheds light on common evolutionary pathways governing these traits. Breeders can leverage the most promising MQTLs and CGs associated with multiple traits to develop superior next-generation wheat cultivars with improved trait performance. This review provides a comprehensive overview of MQTL analysis in wheat, highlighting progress, challenges, validation methods and future opportunities in wheat genetics and breeding, contributing to global food security and sustainable agriculture.

Allostery, engineering and inhibition of tryptophan synthase

The final two steps of tryptophan biosynthesis are catalyzed by the enzyme tryptophan synthase (TS), composed of alpha (αTS) and beta (βTS) subunits. Recently, experimental and computational methods have mapped "allosteric networks" that connect the αTS and βTS active sites. In αTS, allosteric networks change across the catalytic cycle, which might help drive the conformational changes associated with its function. Directed evolution studies to increase catalytic function and expand the substrate profile of stand-alone βTS have also revealed the importance of αTS in modulating the conformational changes in βTS. These studies also serve as a foundation for the development of TS inhibitors, which can find utility against Mycobacterium tuberculosis and other bacterial pathogens.

Probiotic potentials of the silkworm gut symbiont Enterococcus casseliflavus ECB140, a promising L-tryptophan producer living inside the host

AIMS

L-tryptophan is an essential aromatic amino acid for the growth and development of animals. Studies about enteric L-tryptophan-producing bacteria are scarce. In this report, we characterized the probiotic potential of Enterococcus casseliflavus ECB140, focusing on its L-tryptophan production abilities.

METHODS AND RESULTS

ECB140 strain was isolated from the silkworm gut and can survive under strong alkaline environmental conditions. Bacterial colonization traits (motility and biofilm) were examined and showed that only ECB140 produced flagellum and strong biofilms compared with other Enterococcus strains. Comparative genome sequence analyses showed that only ECB140 possessed a complete route for L-tryptophan synthesis among all 15 strains. High-performance liquid chromatography and qRT-PCR confirmed the capability of ECB140 to produce L-tryptophan. Besides, the genome also contains the biosynthesis pathways of several other essential amino acids, such as phenylalanine, threonine, valine, leucine, isoleucine and lysine. These results indicate that ECB140 has the ability to survive passage through the gut and could act as a candidate probiotic.

CONCLUSIONS

The study describes a novel, natural silkworm gut symbiont capable of producing L-tryptophan. Enterococcus casseliflavus ECB140 physical and genomic attributes offer possibilities for its colonization and provide L-tryptophan for lepidopteran insects.

Development and Characterization of Indole-Responsive Whole-Cell Biosensor Based on the Inducible Gene Expression System from Pseudomonas putida KT2440

Indole is a biologically active compound naturally occurring in plants and some bacteria. It is an important specialty chemical that is used as a precursor by the pharmaceutical and chemical industries, as well as in agriculture. Recently, indole has been identified as an important signaling molecule for bacteria in the mammalian gut. The regulation of indole biosynthesis has been studied in several bacterial species. However, this has been limited by the lack of in vivo tools suitable for indole-producing species identification and monitoring. The genetically encoded biosensors have been shown to be useful for real-time quantitative metabolite analysis. This paper describes the identification and characterization of the indole-inducible system PpTrpI/P_{PP_RS00425} from Pseudomonas putida KT2440. Indole whole-cell biosensors based on Escherichia coli and Cupriavidus necator strains are developed and validated. The specificity and dynamics of biosensors in response to indole and its structurally similar derivatives are investigated. The gene expression system PpTrpI/P_{PP_RS00425} is shown to be specifically induced up to 639.6-fold by indole, exhibiting a linear response in the concentration range from approximately 0.4 to 5 mM. The results of this study form the basis for the use of whole-cell biosensors in indole metabolism-relevant bacterial species screening and characterization.

Catalytically impaired TrpA subunit of tryptophan synthase from Chlamydia trachomatis is an allosteric regulator of TrpB

Intracellular growth and pathogenesis of Chlamydia species is controlled by the availability of tryptophan, yet the complete biosynthetic pathway for l‐Trp is absent among members of the genus. Some representatives, however, preserve genes encoding tryptophan synthase, TrpAB – a bifunctional enzyme catalyzing the last two steps in l‐Trp synthesis. TrpA (subunit α) converts indole‐3‐glycerol phosphate into indole and glyceraldehyde‐3‐phosphate (α reaction). The former compound is subsequently used by TrpB (subunit β) to produce l‐Trp in the presence of l‐Ser and a pyridoxal 5′‐phosphate cofactor (β reaction). Previous studies have indicated that in Chlamydia, TrpA has lost its catalytic activity yet remains associated with TrpB to support the β reaction. Here, we provide detailed analysis of the TrpAB from C. trachomatis D/UW‐3/CX, confirming that accumulation of mutations in the active site of TrpA renders it enzymatically inactive, despite the conservation of the catalytic residues. We also show that TrpA remains a functional component of the TrpAB complex, increasing the activity of TrpB by four‐fold. The side chain of non‐conserved βArg267 functions as cation effector, potentially rendering the enzyme less susceptible to the solvent ion composition. The observed structural and functional changes detected herein were placed in a broader evolutionary and genomic context, allowing identification of these mutations in relation to their trp gene contexts in which they occur. Moreover, in agreement with the in vitro data, partial relaxation of purifying selection for TrpA, but not for TrpB, was detected, reinforcing a partial loss of TrpA functions during the course of evolution.

PDB Code(s): 6V82;

Pyridoxal 5'-Phosphate-Dependent Enzymes at the Crossroads of Host-Microbe Tryptophan Metabolism

The chemical processes taking place in humans intersects the myriad of metabolic pathways occurring in commensal microorganisms that colonize the body to generate a complex biochemical network that regulates multiple aspects of human life. The role of tryptophan (Trp) metabolism at the intersection between the host and microbes is increasingly being recognized, and multiple pathways of Trp utilization in either direction have been identified with the production of a wide range of bioactive products. It comes that a dysregulation of Trp metabolism in either the host or the microbes may unbalance the production of metabolites with potential pathological consequences. The ability to redirect the Trp flux to restore a homeostatic production of Trp metabolites may represent a valid therapeutic strategy for a variety of pathological conditions, but identifying metabolic checkpoints that could be exploited to manipulate the Trp metabolic network is still an unmet need. In this review, we put forward the hypothesis that pyridoxal 5′-phosphate (PLP)-dependent enzymes, which regulate multiple pathways of Trp metabolism in both the host and in microbes, might represent critical nodes and that modulating the levels of vitamin B6, from which PLP is derived, might represent a metabolic checkpoint to re-orienteer Trp flux for therapeutic purposes.

Allosteric inhibitors of Mycobacterium tuberculosis tryptophan synthase

Global dispersion of multidrug resistant bacteria is very common and evolution of antibiotic-resistance is occurring at an alarming rate, presenting a formidable challenge for humanity. The development of new therapeuthics with novel molecular targets is urgently needed. Current drugs primarily affect protein, nucleic acid, and cell wall synthesis. Metabolic pathways, including those involved in amino acid biosynthesis, have recently sparked interest in the drug discovery community as potential reservoirs of such novel targets. Tryptophan biosynthesis, utilized by bacteria but absent in humans, represents one of the currently studied processes with a therapeutic focus. It has been shown that tryptophan synthase (TrpAB) is required for survival of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in macrophages and for evading host defense, and therefore is a promising drug target. Here we present crystal structures of TrpAB with two allosteric inhibitors of M. tuberculosis tryptophan synthase that belong to sulfolane and indole-5-sulfonamide chemical scaffolds. We compare our results with previously reported structural and biochemical studies of another, azetidine-containing M. tuberculosis tryptophan synthase inhibitor. This work shows how structurally distinct ligands can occupy the same allosteric site and make specific interactions. It also highlights the potential benefit of targeting more variable allosteric sites of important metabolic enzymes.

3D domain swapping in the TIM barrel of the α subunit of Streptococcus pneumoniae tryptophan synthase

Tryptophan synthase catalyzes the last two steps of tryptophan biosynthesis in plants, fungi and bacteria. It consists of two protein chains, designated α and β, encoded by trpA and trpB genes, that function as an αββα complex. Structural and functional features of tryptophan synthase have been extensively studied, explaining the roles of individual residues in the two active sites in catalysis and allosteric regulation. TrpA serves as a model for protein-folding studies. In 1969, Jackson and Yanofsky observed that the typically monomeric TrpA forms a small population of dimers. Dimerization was postulated to take place through an exchange of structural elements of the monomeric chains, a phenomenon later termed 3D domain swapping. The structural details of the TrpA dimer have remained unknown. Here, the crystal structure of the Streptococcus pneumoniae TrpA homodimer is reported, demonstrating 3D domain swapping in a TIM-barrel fold for the first time. The N-terminal domain comprising the H0-S1-H1-S2 elements is exchanged, while the hinge region corresponds to loop L2 linking strand S2 to helix H2'. The structural elements S2 and L2 carry the catalytic residues Glu52 and Asp63. As the S2 element is part of the swapped domain, the architecture of the catalytic apparatus in the dimer is recreated from two protein chains. The homodimer interface overlaps with the α-β interface of the tryptophan synthase αββα heterotetramer, suggesting that the 3D domain-swapped dimer cannot form a complex with the β subunit. In the crystal, the dimers assemble into a decamer comprising two pentameric rings.

Mycobacterial tryptophan biosynthesis: A promising target for tuberculosis drug development?

The biosynthetic pathways of amino acids are attractive targets for drug development against pathogens with an intracellular behavior like M. tuberculosis (Mtb). Indeed, while in the macrophages Mtb has restricted access to amino acids such as tryptophan (Trp). Auxotrophic Mtb strains, with mutations in the Trp biosynthetic pathway, showed reduced intracellular survival in cultured human and murine macrophages and failed to cause the disease in immunocompetent and immunocompromised mice. Herein we present recent efforts in the discovery of Trp biosynthesis inhibitors.