A grounded theory for resistance to change in a small organization

Network Goal Analysis of Social and Organizational Systems: Testing Dynamic Network Theory in Complex Social Networks

Grounded in dynamic network theory, this study examined network goal analysis (NGA) to understand complex systems. NGA provides new insights by inserting goal nodes into social networks. Goal nodes can also represent missions, objectives, or desires, thus having wide applicability. The theory ties social networks to goal nodes through a parsimonious set of social network role linkages, such as independent goal striving, system supporting, feedback, goal preventing, supportive resisting, and system negating (i.e., those who are upset with others in the pursuit). Moreover, we extend the theory’s system reactance role linkage to better account for constructive conflicts. Two complex systems were examined: a team’s mission and an individual’s work project. In support of dynamic network theory, using the Quadratic Assignment Procedure, results demonstrated significant shared goal striving, system supporting, and shared connections between goal striving and system supporting. These findings manifest what we coin as multipendence: Systems having some actions independently involved with goals, while others are dependently involved in the associated network. NGA also demonstrated that the goal nodes manifested strong betweenness centrality, indicating that goal striving and feedback links were connecting entities across the wider system. Strategies to plan network goal interventions are illustrated with implications for practice.

Organizational culture for lean programs

Purpose

Recent studies suggest that the implementation of Lean will only be successful when aligned with organizational culture (OC). The purpose of this paper is to understand an Ideal Lean Culture (ILC) in the Brazilian context.

Design/methodology/approach

This diagnosis is based on the Competing Values Framework, and it is the result of a survey with 51 experts in charge of implementation of Lean programs in organizations operating in different industry segments in Brazil.

Findings

The results show that an ILC for Brazilian organizations seems to have the dominant profile of the hierarchy culture, thus characterizing a highly structured and formal place, with rules and procedures governing the behavior of people.

Research limitations/implications

Some limitations of this study include: although a survey has been applied, the research cannot be classified as a quantitative study; it brings the opinion of a limited number of Brazilian experts about lean programs; both the sample size could be increased and the nationality of respondents could be expanded for future research.

Practical implications

It is proposed that an organization (or an area of the organization) that wants to be successful in its lean journey must, first, measure its OC and then promote a cultural profile aligned with the results presented in this paper. By doing so, it is expected that this lean journey should have a higher probability of long-term success and sustainability of lean practices, concepts and philosophy.

Originality/value

In the last two decades much has been written about the importance of OC in the success of lean programs. However, very few studies has mapped and measured an ILC in a way that allows researchers, consultants and managers to evaluate if an OC is close to or distant from an ILC.

Spontaneous Self-Managing Practices in Groups

This study, based on qualitative research, accounts for a process of collective and spontaneous self-managing practices in a group formally structured as a manager-led team. It explains the group members’ reactions to different types of work arrangements and their coordination in terms of their need to affirm their professional identity. The characteristics of the organizational context, of the labor market, and of the technology involved favor the emergence of self-management, too. The authors employed observation, ethnographic interviews, and analysis of documents in conducting this research.

Dynamic capabilities as patterns of organizational change

Purpose

– In this paper the authors explore the managerial processes involved in deep, purposeful organizational change. The authors investigate change towards a goal-directed end state and the managerial actions involved in reaching it. The purpose of this paper is to identify patterns of organizational change by analysing how variations occurred in a firm’s resources and capabilities at a time of high internal and external uncertainty.

Design/methodology/approach

– The authors use a longitudinal in-depth case study on the airline Spanair. The authors analyse the change process this airline engaged in between 2007 and 2012, which was considered the most turbulent period in aviation history. The authors followed the grounded theory approach to induce a strategic capability pattern model from secondary data.

Findings

– The authors identify a capability pattern with four dynamic capabilities: adding, transferring, integrating and shedding; and two higher-order capabilities: goal development and change orchestration. The authors show how the higher-order capability processes are performed by two levels of decision makers, where one creates a goal-directed path, and the other performs a central role in orchestrating change.

Originality/value

– Using the teleological approach the authors identify how top management orchestrate change arising from the dynamic capability process outcomes in a top-down and bottom-up manner. As such the authors show how the role of management becomes fundamental in adjusting the capabilities required to meet the goals set, particularly in times of heightened internal and external environmental turbulence. The authors also emphasize the importance of providing bottom-up advice to goal directors.

Deconstructing resistance to organizational change: a social representation theory approach

Purpose

– The purpose of this paper is to illustrate how social representation theory (SRT) can be used to understand the concept of resistance to change. SRT is a growing theory in social psychology research. SRT is about how individuals co-construct representations of various objects in different social settings. These social representations govern the attitudes and actions of individuals and groups. In spite of the growing interest in SRT in various fields, no studies have used SRT to understand resistance to organizational change.

Design/methodology/approach

– This study reviews the relevant literature on resistance to change and SRT to develop a conceptual framework for understanding resistance from the standpoint of SRT.

Findings

– The authors develop a model that illustrates how three interrelated objects, i.e. the organizational process and the pre-and post-change situation, are co-constructed in social contexts. Also, the authors discuss how representations of these objects can co-exist (cognitive polyphasia). Our study illustrates the complexity of resistance to change by deconstructing the concept.

Originality/value

– Application of SRT to analyze resistance to organizational change is a novel approach that provides several new insights. For example, where most publications regard advocates of change as sense-givers in the change recipient’s sense-making process, the authors argue for a more constructionist approach. Thus, all actors involved in the change process will affect each other and together co-construct the social representations. These social representations govern attitudes to change.

Speech as a way of constructing change in space

Purpose

This article presents a model of employees' rhetorical patterns, which take place during a workplace change.

Design/methodology/approach

The method of discourse analysis is used to investigate employees' perceptions of and dispositions to the change. In total, 21 semi‐structured interviews were conducted in two organizations before and after moving to open plan offices.

Findings

People tend to frame the change in space by either opposing or conforming ways of making sense. Opposing discourses include rhetorical strategies of social community versus own responsibility, believing in a hidden agenda of management, and distancing oneself. Conforming discourses include social community versus individual opinion, including oneself, and trusting the professionals. Additionally it was found that employees tend to be ambiguous with their messages when interviewed during a workplace change process.

Social implications

Acknowledging the results of this paper can help workplace managers to make a difference between naturally occurring change resistance among employees and well justified disagreement with the content of the change. Also, the results help workplace managers to understand the rhetoric and behaviour of employees' during a workplace change.

Originality/value

The methodology of discourse analysis is rarely used in facilities management research and is thus a method to be considered in future studies of FM.

NEW PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT WITHIN SMALL AND MEDIUM-SIZED ENTERPRISES: ANALYSIS THROUGH TECHNOLOGY MANAGEMENT MAPS

Technology management maps have been developed to evaluate new product development (NPD) within small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). These maps provide a graphical 'footprint' of a company in terms of knowledge, resources, quality, and innovation & change. A series of 15 case-study companies highlight that the shape and extent of the technology management maps correlate well with the overall impact of the NPD activities. Implementation of an effective NPD process is the main distinguishing factor between the best- and worst-performing companies. The inherent benefits of design-led technology are also encapsulated, specifically in the areas of resource savings and improved product quality.

CASE STUDIES OF ADVANCED MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY IMPLEMENTATION IN SMALL COMPANIES

Issues of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (AMT) implementation have been extensively covered in the literature in regard to large companies; however, exclusive examination of the impact of AMT on small companies remains under researched. This examination of ten case study companies demonstrates the potential benefits of AMT use, as each of the companies achieved positive outcomes from AMT. However, the benefits achieved did not always meet the companies' expectations. Analysis of the experiences of the companies indicates the importance of considering the impact of AMT output on the manufacturing process, the levels of pre-existing AMT experience and the availability of external support mechanisms.

Empowerment, Predisposition to Resist Change, and Support for Organizational Change

This article investigates the extent to which empowerment and dispositional characteristics contribute to behavioral support for organizational change.The study is the first to use a comprehensive intrapersonal variable—psychological empowerment— to represent the interaction between an individual and his or her work environment. Furthermore, by examining the influence of predisposition to resist change, the study contributes to the understanding that change content, change process, change context, and individual differences all contribute differentially to organizational change. Results from data collected from part-time MBA students as well as employees of a nonprofit organization confirmed two hypothesized predictions.

COMMUNITY READINESS AS A MULTIDIMENSIONAL CONSTRUCT

Both the organizational studies literature and the community psychology literature discuss the importance of readiness when implementing change. Although each area emphasizes different characteristics, several common themes are present within the literature. The current study integrates and applies organizational and community psychology literature in evaluating community readiness in the context of a school-community-university collaborative prevention model. Results demonstrate (a) that there is substantial agreement between members of community prevention teams on the level of readiness of a community; (b) that readiness is a cohesive, but multidimensional, construct related to hypothesized community and individual characteristics; and (c) that there is small to moderate agreement between members of prevention teams and their "agency directors." These results support the notion that clear "theories of change" need to be formulated before deciding how to assess community readiness, as assessments will vary due to several factors: the type of respondent, the level in which analyses are conducted, and the specific community domain (i.e., school, workplace collaboration, collaboration experience) investigated.