Dominant local binary patterns for texture classification

Hybrid deep spatial and statistical feature fusion for accurate MRI brain tumor classification

The classification of medical images is crucial in the biomedical field, and despite attempts to address the issue, significant challenges persist. To effectively categorize medical images, collecting and integrating statistical information that accurately describes the image is essential. This study proposes a unique method for feature extraction that combines deep spatial characteristics with handmade statistical features. The approach involves extracting statistical radiomics features using advanced techniques, followed by a novel handcrafted feature fusion method inspired by the ResNet deep learning model. A new feature fusion framework (FusionNet) is then used to reduce image dimensionality and simplify computation. The proposed approach is tested on MRI images of brain tumors from the BraTS dataset, and the results show that it outperforms existing methods regarding classification accuracy. The study presents three models, including a handcrafted-based model and two CNN models, which completed the binary classification task. The recommended hybrid approach achieved a high F1 score of 96.12 ± 0.41, precision of 97.77 ± 0.32, and accuracy of 97.53 ± 0.24, indicating that it has the potential to serve as a valuable tool for pathologists.

Real time anatomical landmarks and abnormalities detection in gastrointestinal tract

Gastrointestinal (GI) endoscopy is an active research field due to the lethal cancer diseases in the GI tract. Cancer treatments result better if diagnosed early and it increases the survival chances. There is a high miss rate in the detection of the abnormalities in the GI tract during endoscopy or colonoscopy due to the lack of attentiveness, tiring procedures, or the lack of required training. The procedure of the detection can be automated to the reduction of the risks by identifying and flagging the suspicious frames. A suspicious frame may have some of the abnormality or the information about anatomical landmark in the frame. The frame then can be analysed for the anatomical landmarks and the abnormalities for the detection of disease. In this research, a real-time endoscopic abnormalities detection system is presented that detects the abnormalities and the landmarks. The proposed system is based on a combination of handcrafted and deep features. Deep features are extracted from lightweight MobileNet convolutional neural network (CNN) architecture. There are some of the classes with a small inter-class difference and a higher intra-class differences, for such classes the same detection threshold is unable to distinguish. The threshold of such classes is learned from the training data using genetic algorithm. The system is evaluated on various benchmark datasets and resulted in an accuracy of 0.99 with the F1-score of 0.91 and Matthews correlation coefficient (MCC) of 0.91 on Kvasir datasets and F1-score of 0.93 on the dataset of DowPK. The system detects abnormalities in real-time with the detection speed of 41 frames per second.

Lightweight Pixel Difference Networks for Efficient Visual Representation Learning

Recently, there have been tremendous efforts in developing lightweight Deep Neural Networks (DNNs) with satisfactory accuracy, which can enable the ubiquitous deployment of DNNs in edge devices. The core challenge of developing compact and efficient DNNs lies in how to balance the competing goals of achieving high accuracy and high efficiency. In this paper we propose two novel types of convolutions, dubbed Pixel Difference Convolution (PDC) and Binary PDC (Bi-PDC) which enjoy the following benefits: capturing higher-order local differential information, computationally efficient, and able to be integrated with existing DNNs. With PDC and Bi-PDC, we further present two lightweight deep networks named Pixel Difference Networks (PiDiNet) and Binary PiDiNet (Bi-PiDiNet) respectively to learn highly efficient yet more accurate representations for visual tasks including edge detection and object recognition. Extensive experiments on popular datasets (BSDS500, ImageNet, LFW, YTF, etc.) show that PiDiNet and Bi-PiDiNet achieve the best accuracy-efficiency trade-off. For edge detection, PiDiNet is the first network that can be trained without ImageNet, and can achieve the human-level performance on BSDS500 at 100 FPS and with 1 M parameters. For object recognition, among existing Binary DNNs, Bi-PiDiNet achieves the best accuracy and a nearly 2× reduction of computational cost on ResNet18.

Texture classification with modified rotation invariant local binary pattern and gradient boosting

Since texture is prominent low level feature of an image, most of the image processing and computer vision applications rely on this feature for efficient extraction, retrieval, visualization and classification of the images. Hence, the texture analysis method mainly concentrates on efficient feature extraction and representation of the image. The images captured and analyzed in many of the applications are not in same (or) similar scale, orientation and illumination and also texture has regular, stochastic, periodic, homogeneous (or) inhomogeneous and directional in nature. To address these issues, recent texture analysis method focused on efficient and invariant feature extraction and representation with reduced dimension. Hence this paper proposes a invariant texture descriptor, Locality preserving Rotation Invariant Modified Directional Local Binary Pattern (LRIMDLBP) based on LBP. The classical LBP descriptor is widely used in most of the texture analysis applications due to its simplicity and robustness to illumination changes. However, it does not efficiently capture the discriminative texture information because it uses sign information and ignores the magnitude value of the neighborhood and also suffers from high dimensionality. Hence to improve the performance of LBP, many variants are proposed. Though most of these LBP variants are either geometrical or direction invariant, fails to address the spatial locality and contrast invariance. To address these issues, the proposed LRIMDLBP incorporates spatial locality, contrast and direction information for rotation invariant texture descriptor with reduced dimension. The proposed LRIMDLBP consists of 5 phases: (i) Reference point identification, (ii) Magnitude calculation, (iii) Binary Label computation based on threshold, (iv) Pattern identification in dominant direction and (v) LRIMDLBP code computation. The locality and rotation invariance is achieved by identifying and using reference point in a local neighborhood. The reference point is a dominant pixel whose magnitude is large in the neighborhood excluding center pixel. The spatial locality and rotation invariance is achieved by preserving the weights of LBP dynamically based on the reference point. The proposed method also preserves the direction information of the texture by comparing the magnitude of the pixel in the four dominant directions such as horizontal, vertical, diagonal and anti-diagonal directions. Finally the proposed invariant LRIMDLBP descriptor computes histogram based on decimal pattern value. The proposed LRIMDLBP descriptor results in texture feature with reduced dimension when compared to other LBP variants. The performance of the proposed descriptor is evaluated with large and well known four bench mark texture datasets namely (i) CUReT, (ii) Outex, (iii) KTS-TIPS and (iv) UIUC against three classifiers such as (i). K-Nearest Neighbor (K-NN), (ii). Support Vector Machine (SVM) with Radial Basis Function (RBF) and (iii). Gradient Boosting Classifier (GBC). The intensive experimental result shows that the ensemble based GBC yields superior classification accuracy of 99.38%, 99.43%, 98.67% and 98.82% for the datasets CUReT, Outex, KTH-TIPS and UIUC respectively when compared with other two classifiers and also improves the generalization ability. The proposed LRIMDLBP descriptor achieves approximately 15% more classification accuracy when compared with traditional LBP and also produces 1% to 2.5% more classification accuracy compared with other state of the art LBP variants.

A New LBP Variant: Corner Rhombus Shape LBP (CRSLBP)

The local binary model is a straightforward, dependable, and effective method for extracting relevant local information from images. However, because it only uses sign information in the local region, the local binary pattern (LBP) is ineffective at capturing discriminating characteristics. Furthermore, most LBP variants select a region with one specific center pixel to fill all neighborhoods. In this paper, a new variant of a LBP is proposed for texture classification, known as corner rhombus-shape LBP (CRSLBP). In the CRSLBP approach, we first use three methods to threshold the pixel's neighbors and center to obtain four center pixels by using sign and magnitude information with respect to a chosen region of an even block. This helps determine not just the relationship between neighbors and the pixel center but also between the center and the neighbor pixels of neighborhood center pixels. We evaluated the performance of our descriptors using four challenging texture databases: Outex (TC10,TC12), Brodatz, KTH-TIPSb2, and UMD. Various extensive experiments were performed that demonstrated the effectiveness and robustness of our descriptor in comparison with the available state of the art (SOTA).

Multidirectional Gradient Feature With Shape Index for Effective Texture Classification

Recently, local gradient microstructure of image textures has become an important field of texture classification, but it is generally to investigate the multiscale local microstructures of image gradient, and rarely consider the multidirectional and multiscale local microstructure of image gradient. The proposed algorithm first extracts the two-order gradient feature of the image from different orthogonal directions and further constructs the multiple shape index of the image, and then calculates the histogram feature vectors of the shape index on different orthogonal directions and scales, and finally connects all histogram feature vectors on different orthogonal directions and scales to obtain the final matching feature vector of the image. To further enhance the discriminant ability of feature vector generated by multidirectional shape index schemes, the weight of each block of images is also considered. Experiments on two texture databases and one palmprint database have fully confirmed the effective of proposed algorithm.

Novel convolutional neural networks for efficient classification of rotated and scaled images

This paper presents a novel method for improving the invariance of convolutional neural networks (CNNs) to selected geometric transformations in order to obtain more efficient image classifiers. A common strategy employed to achieve this aim is to train the network using data augmentation. Such a method alone, however, increases the complexity of the neural network model, as any change in the rotation or size of the input image results in the activation of different CNN feature maps. This problem can be resolved by the proposed novel convolutional neural network models with geometric transformations embedded into the network architecture. The evaluation of the proposed CNN model is performed on the image classification task with the use of diverse representative data sets. The CNN models with embedded geometric transformations are compared to those without the transformations, using different data augmentation setups. As the compared approaches use the same amount of memory to store the parameters, the improved classification score means that the proposed architecture is more optimal.

Texture Analysis and its Applications in Biomedical Imaging: A Survey

Texture analysis describes a variety of image analysis techniques that quantify the variation in intensity and pattern. This paper provides an overview of several texture analysis approaches addressing the rationale supporting them, their advantages, drawbacks, and applications. This surveys emphasis is in collecting and categorising over five decades of active research on texture analysis. Brief descriptions of different approaches are presented along with application examples. From a broad range of texture analysis applications, this surveys final focus is on biomedical image analysis. An up-to-date list of biological tissues and organs in which disorders produce texture changes that may be used to spot disease onset and progression is provided. Finally, the role of texture analysis methods as biomarkers of disease is summarised.

2D-LCoLBP: A Learning Two-Dimensional Co-Occurrence Local Binary Pattern for Image Recognition

The rotation, scale and translation invariance of extracted features have a high significance in image recognition. Local binary pattern (LBP) and LBP-based descriptors have been widely used in image recognition due to feature discrimination and computational efficiency. However, most of the existing LBP-based descriptors have been designed to achieve rotation invariance while fail to achieve scale invariance. Moreover, it is usually difficult to achieve a good trade-off between the feature discrimination and the feature dimension. In this work, a learning 2D co-occurrence LBP termed 2D-LCoLBP is proposed to address these issues. Firstly, a weighted joint histogram is constructed in different neighborhoods and scales of an image to represent the multi-neighborhood and multi-scale LBP (2D-MLBP) and achieve the rotation invariance. A feature learning strategy is then designed to learn the compact and robust descriptor (2D-LCoLBP) from LBP pattern pairs across different scales in the extracted 2D-MLBP to characterize the most stable local structures and achieve the scale invariance, as well as decrease the feature dimension and improve the noise robustness. Finally, a linear SVM classifier is employed for recognition. We applied the proposed 2D-LCoLBP on four image recognition tasks-texture, object, face and food recognition with ten image databases. Experimental results show that 2D-LCoLBP has obviously low feature dimension but outperforms the state-of-the-art LBP-based descriptors in terms of recognition accuracy under noise-free, Gaussian noise and JPEG compression conditions.

Facial expression analysis using local directional stigma mean patterns and convolutional neural networks

This paper represents automatic facial expression analysis method named Local Directional Stigma Mean Patterns (LDSMP) for automatic facial expression analysis and image retrieval using content based facial expression image retrieval and CNN. The traditional local patterns such as Local Binary Patterns (LBP) and Local Ternary Patterns (LTP) are applied for face recognition and expression analysis, calculated using relationship between the center pixel and neighboring pixels. The proposed method calculates the eight directional difference values then divided into the three ranges based on threshold values. Thus, the values are substituted with basic three positive values (+3, +2, +1) and three negative values (-3, -2, -1) to get more sensitive information from an image rather than aforementioned methods. The threshold can be select either static which is selected by user or dynamic is evaluated from image itself and supports to improve the efficiency. The performance of the proposed method is further improved by giving this patterns as input to the Convolutional Neural Networks (CNN) and compared with the existing methods LBP, LTP, and Directional Binary Code (DBC) in terms of Average Precision (AP), Average Recall (AR), and Average Retrieval Rate (ARR) using standard databases COREL 10K (DB1) and JAFFE (The Japanese Female Facial Expression) (DB2) and Extended Cohn-Kanade (CK +) (DB3) dataset.

A novel method for detecting morphologically similar crops and weeds based on the combination of contour masks and filtered Local Binary Pattern operators

BACKGROUND

Weeds are a major cause of low agricultural productivity. Some weeds have morphological features similar to crops, making them difficult to discriminate.

RESULTS

We propose a novel method using a combination of filtered features extracted by combined Local Binary Pattern operators and features extracted by plant-leaf contour masks to improve the discrimination rate between broadleaf plants. Opening and closing morphological operators were applied to filter noise in plant images. The images at 4 stages of growth were collected using a testbed system. Mask-based local binary pattern features were combined with filtered features and a coefficient k. The classification of crops and weeds was achieved using support vector machine with radial basis function kernel. By investigating optimal parameters, this method reached a classification accuracy of 98.63% with 4 classes in the "bccr-segset" dataset published online in comparison with an accuracy of 91.85% attained by a previously reported method.

CONCLUSIONS

The proposed method enhances the identification of crops and weeds with similar appearance and demonstrates its capabilities in real-time weed detection.

An efficient framework using visual recognition for IoT based smart city surveillance

Smart city surveillance systems are the battery operated light weight Internet of Things (IoT) devices. In such devices, automatic face recognition requires a low powered memory efficient visual computing system. For these real time applications in smart cities, efficient visual recognition systems are need of the hour. In this manuscript, efficient fast subspace decomposition over Chi Square transformation is proposed for IoT based on smart city surveillance systems. The proposed technique extracts the features for visual recognition using local binary pattern histogram. The redundant features are discarded by applying the fast subspace decomposition over the Gaussian distributed Local Binary Pattern (LBP) features. This redundancy is major contributor to memory and time consumption for battery based surveillance systems. The proposed technique is suitable for all visual recognition applications deployed in IoT based surveillance devices due to higher dimension reduction. The validation of proposed technique is proved on the basis of well-known databases. The technique shows significant results for all databases when implemented on Raspberry Pi. A comparison of the proposed technique with already existing/reported techniques for the similar applications has been provided. Least error rate is achieved by the proposed technique with maximum feature reduction in minimum time for all the standard databases. Therefore, the proposed algorithm is useful for real time visual recognition for smart city surveillance.

Automated diagnosis of diabetic retinopathy enabled by optimized thresholding-based blood vessel segmentation and hybrid classifier

Objectives

The focus of this paper is to introduce an automated early Diabetic Retinopathy (DR) detection scheme from colour fundus images through enhanced segmentation and classification strategies by analyzing blood vessels.

Methods

The occurrence of DR is increasing from the past years, impacting the eyes due to a sudden rise in the glucose level of blood. All over the world, half of the people who are under age 70 are severely suffered from diabetes. The patients who are affected by DR will lose their vision during the absence of early recognition of DR and appropriate treatment. To decrease the growth and occurrence of loss of vision, the early detection and timely treatment of DR are desirable. At present, deep learning models have presented better performance using retinal images for DR detection. In this work, the input retinal fundus images are initially subjected to pre-processing that undergoes contrast enhancement by Contrast Limited Adaptive Histogram Equalization (CLAHE) and average filtering. Further, the optimized binary thresholding-based segmentation is done for blood vessel segmentation. For the segmented image, Tri-level Discrete Level Decomposition (Tri-DWT) is performed to decompose it. In the feature extraction phase, Local Binary Pattern (LBP), and Gray-Level Co-occurrence Matrices (GLCMs) are extracted. Next, the classification of images is done through the combination of two algorithms, one is Neural Network (NN), and the other Convolutional Neural Network (CNN). The extracted features are subjected to NN, and the tri-DWT-based segmented image is subjected to CNN. Both the segmentation and classification phases are enhanced by the improved meta-heuristic algorithm called Fitness Rate-based Crow Search Algorithm (FR-CSA), in which few parameters are optimized for attaining maximum detection accuracy.

Results

The proposed DR detection model was implemented in MATLAB 2018a, and the analysis was done using three datasets, HRF, Messidor, and DIARETDB.

Conclusions

The developed FR-CSA algorithm has the best detection accuracy in diagnosing DR.

Hyperspectral Anomaly Detection via Graph Dictionary-Based Low Rank Decomposition with Texture Feature Extraction

The accuracy of anomaly detection in hyperspectral images (HSIs) faces great challenges due to the high dimensionality, redundancy of data, and correlation of spectral bands. In this paper, to further improve the detection accuracy, we propose a novel anomaly detection method based on texture feature extraction and a graph dictionary-based low rank decomposition (LRD). First, instead of using traditional clustering methods for the dictionary, the proposed method employs the graph theory and designs a graph Laplacian matrix-based dictionary for LRD. The robust information of the background matrix in the LRD model is retained, and both the low rank matrix and the sparse matrix are well separated while preserving the correlation of background pixels. To further improve the detection performance, we explore and extract texture features from HSIs and integrate with the low-rank model to obtain the sparse components by decomposition. The detection results from feature maps are generated in order to suppress background components similar to anomalies in the sparse matrix and increase the strength of real anomalies. Experiments were run on one synthetic dataset and three real datasets to evaluate the performance. The results show that the performance of the proposed method yields competitive results in terms of average area under the curve (AUC) for receiver operating characteristic (ROC), i.e., 0.9845, 0.9962, 0.9699, and 0.9900 for different datasets, respectively. Compared with seven other state-of-the-art algorithms, our method yielded the highest average AUC for ROC in all datasets.

Analysis on diagnosing diabetic retinopathy by segmenting blood vessels, optic disc and retinal abnormalities

The main intention of mass screening programmes for Diabetic Retinopathy (DR) is to detect and diagnose the disorder earlier than it leads to vision loss. Automated analysis of retinal images has the likelihood to improve the efficacy of screening programmes when compared over the manual image analysis. This article plans to develop a framework for the detection of DR from the retinal fundus images using three evaluations based on optic disc, blood vessels and retinal abnormalities. Initially, the pre-processing steps like green channel conversion and Contrast Limited Adaptive Histogram Equalisation is done. Further, the segmentation procedure starts with optic disc segmentation by open-close watershed transform, blood vessel segmentation by grey level thresholding and abnormality segmentation (hard exudates, haemorrhages, Microaneurysm and soft exudates) by top hat transform and Gabor filtering mechanisms. From the three segmented images, the feature like local binary pattern, texture energy measurement, Shanon's and Kapur's entropy are extracted, which is subjected to optimal feature selection process using the new hybrid optimisation algorithm termed as Trial-based Bypass Improved Dragonfly Algorithm (TB - DA). These features are given to hybrid machine learning algorithm with the combination of NN and DBN. As a modification, the same hybrid TB - DA is used to enhance the training of hybrid classifier, which outputs the categorisation as normal, mild, moderate or severe images based on three components.

Combination of LBP Bin and Histogram Selections for Color Texture Classification

LBP (Local Binary Pattern) is a very popular texture descriptor largely used in computer vision. In most applications, LBP histograms are exploited as texture features leading to a high dimensional feature space, especially for color texture classification problems. In the past few years, different solutions were proposed to reduce the dimension of the feature space based on the LBP histogram. Most of these approaches apply feature selection methods in order to find the most discriminative bins. Recently another strategy proposed selecting the most discriminant LBP histograms in their entirety. This paper tends to improve on these previous approaches, and presents a combination of LBP bin and histogram selections, where a histogram ranking method is applied before processing a bin selection procedure. The proposed approach is evaluated on five benchmark image databases and the obtained results show the effectiveness of the combination of LBP bin and histogram selections which outperforms the simple LBP bin and LBP histogram selection approaches when they are applied independently.

A New Texture Descriptor: The Homogeneous Local Binary Pattern (HLBP)

This paper presents a simple and novel descriptor named Homogeneous Local Binary Pattern (HLBP) for texture analysis. The purpose of this description is to improve the Local Binary Pattern (LBP) approach basing on the impact of criterion homogeneous region using General Adaptive Neighborhood (GAN) principle. HLBP method is generated by using the criterion homogeneity which helps to represent a significant feature based on relationships between neighboring pixels. The main idea of HLBP is to threshold the distance between the current pixel and each of its neighbors with a homogeneity tolerance value which correspond more to the underlying spatial structures consequently allow extracting highly distinctive invariant features of the image. To assess the performance of the our proposed descriptor, we use “Outex" database and compared with the basic (LBPs). The experimental results show that the proposed Homogeneous Local Binary Pattern gives a good performance in term of classification accuracy.

Robust Adaptive Median Binary Pattern for Noisy Texture Classification and Retrieval

Texture is an important characteristic for different computer vision tasks and applications. Local binary pattern (LBP) is considered one of the most efficient texture descriptors yet. However, LBP has some notable limitations, in particular its sensitivity to noise. In this paper, we address these criteria by introducing a novel texture descriptor, robust adaptive median binary pattern (RAMBP). RAMBP is based on a process involving classification of noisy pixels, adaptive analysis window, scale analysis, and a comparison of image medians. The proposed method handles images with highly noisy textures and increases the discriminative properties by capturing microstructure and macrostructure texture information. The method was evaluated on popular texture datasets for classification and retrieval tasks and under different high noise conditions. Without any training or prior knowledge of the noise type, RAMBP achieved the best classification compared to state-of-the-art techniques. It scored more than 90% under 50% impulse noise densities, more than 95% under Gaussian noised textures with a standard deviation σ = 5 , more than 99% under Gaussian blurred textures with a standard deviation σ = 1.25 , and more than 90% for mixed noise. The proposed method yielded competitive results and proved to be one of the best descriptors in noise-free texture classification. Furthermore, RAMBP showed high performance for the problem of noisy texture retrieval providing high scores of recall and precision measures for textures with high noise levels. Finally, compared with the state-of-the-art methods, RAMBP achieves a good running time with low feature dimensionality.

Structure descriptor based on just noticeable difference for texture image classification

Local binary pattern (LBP) and its derivates have been widely used in texture classification. However, LBP-based methods are sensitive to noise, and some structure information represented by non-uniform patterns is lost due to the combination of these patterns. In this paper, a new local structure descriptor based on just noticeable difference (JND) for texture classification is proposed by exploring the spatial and relative intensity correlations among local neighborhood pixels. First, a JND map of the image is computed, and then we attempt to model the correlations among local neighborhood pixels by comparing the absolute differences in intensity between the central pixel and its neighbors with the corresponding JND threshold. A new visual pattern (JNDVP) is designed using modeled correlations to describe image structure. Next, considering that image contrast makes important contributions to structure description, contrast is employed as a weighting factor for JNDVP histogram creation to represent structural and contrast information in a single representation. Finally, the nearest neighborhood classifier is employed for texture classification. Results on two texture image databases demonstrate that the proposed structure descriptor is rotation invariant and more robust to noise than LBP. Moreover, texture classification based on JNDVP outperforms LBP-based methods.

Multi-Resolution Weed Classification via Convolutional Neural Network and Superpixel Based Local Binary Pattern Using Remote Sensing Images

Automatic weed detection and classification faces the challenges of large intraclass variation and high spectral similarity to other vegetation. With the availability of new high-resolution remote sensing data from various platforms and sensors, it is possible to capture both spectral and spatial characteristics of weed species at multiple scales. Effective multi-resolution feature learning is then desirable to extract distinctive intensity, texture and shape features of each category of weed to enhance the weed separability. We propose a feature extraction method using a Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) and superpixel based Local Binary Pattern (LBP). Both middle and high level spatial features are learned using the CNN. Local texture features from superpixel-based LBP are extracted, and are also used as input to Support Vector Machines (SVM) for weed classification. Experimental results on the hyperspectral and remote sensing datasets verify the effectiveness of the proposed method, and show that it outperforms several feature extraction approaches.

Texture Analysis for Muscular Dystrophy Classification in MRI with Improved Class Activation Mapping

The muscular dystrophies are made up of a diverse group of rare genetic diseases characterized by progressive loss of muscle strength and muscle damage. Since there is no cure for muscular dystrophy and clinical outcome measures are limited, it is critical to assess the progression of MD objectively. Imaging muscle replacement by fibrofatty tissue has been shown to be a robust biomarker to monitor disease progression in DMD. In magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) data, specific texture patterns are found to correlate to certain MD subtypes and thus present a potential way for automatic assessment. In this paper, we first apply state-of-the-art convolutional neural networks (CNNs) to perform accurate MD image classification and then propose an effective visualization method to highlight the important image textures. With a dystrophic MRI dataset, we found that the best CNN model delivers an 91.7% classification accuracy, which significantly outperforms non-deep learning methods, e.g., >40% improvement has been found over the traditional mean fat fraction (MFF) criterion for DMD and CMD classification. After investigating every single neuron at the top layer of CNN model, we found the superior classification ability of CNN can be explained by its 91 and 118 neurons were performing better than the MFF criterion under the measurements of Euclidean and Chi-square distance, respectively. In order to further interpret CNNs predictions, we tested an improved class activation mapping (ICAM) method to visualize the important regions in the MRI images. With this ICAM, CNNs are able to locate the most discriminative texture patterns of DMD in soleus, lateral gastrocnemius, and medial gastrocnemius; for CMD, the critical texture patterns are highlighted in soleus, tibialis posterior, and peroneus.

Unsupervised Local Binary Pattern Histogram Selection Scores for Color Texture Classification

These last few years, several supervised scores have been proposed in the literature to select histograms. Applied to color texture classification problems, these scores have improved the accuracy by selecting the most discriminant histograms among a set of available ones computed from a color image. In this paper, two new scores are proposed to select histograms: The adapted Variance score and the adapted Laplacian score. These new scores are computed without considering the class label of the images, contrary to what is done until now. Experiments, achieved on OuTex, USPTex, and BarkTex sets, show that these unsupervised scores give as good results as the supervised ones for LBP histogram selection.

Training-Based Gradient LBP Feature Models for Multiresolution Texture Classification

Local binary pattern (LBP) is a simple, yet efficient coding model for extracting texture features. To improve texture classification, this paper designs a median sampling regulation, defines a group of gradient LBP (gLBP) descriptors, proposes a training-based feature model mapping method, and then develops a texture classification frame using the multiresolution feature fusion of four gLBP descriptors. Cooperated by median sampling, four descriptors encode a pixel respectively by central gradient, radial gradient, magnitude gradient and tangent gradient to generate initial gLBP patterns. The feature mapping models of gLBP descriptors are constructed by the maximal relative-variation rate (mr2) of rotation-invariant patterns, and then prestored as mapping lookup files. By mapping, initial patterns can be transformed into low-dimensional ones. And then it generates multiresolution texture features via the joint and concatenation of gLBP descriptors on different sampling parameters. A trained nearest neighbor classifier with chi-square distance is applied to classify textures by feature histograms. The experimental results of simulation on five public texture databases show that the proposed method is reliable and efficient in texture classification. In comparison with nine other similar approaches, including two state-of-the-art ones, the proposed method runs faster than most of them and also outperforms all of them in terms of classification accuracy and noise robustness. It achieves higher accuracy and has also better robustness to the Salt&Pepper and Gaussian noise added artificially into texture images.