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Martínez-Núñez C, Casanelles Abella J, Frey D, Zanetta A, Moretti M. Local and landscape factors shape alpha and beta trophic interaction diversity in urban gardens. Proc Biol Sci 2024; 291:20232501. [PMID: 38772421 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2023.2501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2023] [Accepted: 04/15/2024] [Indexed: 05/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Promoting urban green spaces is an effective strategy to increase biodiversity in cities. However, our understanding of how local and landscape factors influence trophic interactions in these urban contexts remains limited. Here, we sampled cavity-nesting bees and wasps and their natural enemies within 85 urban gardens in Zurich (Switzerland) to identify factors associated with the diversity and dissimilarity of antagonistic interactions in these communities. The proportions of built-up area and urban green area at small landscape scales (50 m radius), as well as the management intensity, sun exposure, plant richness and proportion of agricultural land at the landscape scale (250 m radius), were key drivers of interaction diversity. This increased interaction diversity resulted not only from the higher richness of host and natural enemy species, but also from species participating in more interactions. Furthermore, dissimilarity in community structure and interactions across gardens (beta-diversity) were primarily influenced by differences in built-up areas and urban green areas at the landscape scale, as well as by management intensity. Our study offers crucial insights for urban planning and conservation strategies, supporting sustainability goals by helping to understand the factors that shape insect communities and their trophic interactions in urban gardens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos Martínez-Núñez
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, Estación Biológica de Doñana EBD (CSIC), Calle Avenida Américo Vespucio, 26 , Sevilla 41092, Spain
| | - Joan Casanelles Abella
- Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology EAWAG, Ueberlandstrasse 133 , Dübendorf, Switzerland
- Urban Productive Ecosystems, TUM School of Life Sciences, Hans Carl-von-Carlowitz-Platz 2 , Feising 85354, Germany
- Biodiversity and Conservation Biology, Swiss Federal Research Institute WSL, Zürcherstrasse 111 , Birmensdorf 8903, Switzerland
| | - David Frey
- Biodiversity and Conservation Biology, Swiss Federal Research Institute WSL, Zürcherstrasse 111 , Birmensdorf 8903, Switzerland
| | - Andrea Zanetta
- Biodiversity and Conservation Biology, Swiss Federal Research Institute WSL, Zürcherstrasse 111 , Birmensdorf 8903, Switzerland
| | - Marco Moretti
- Biodiversity and Conservation Biology, Swiss Federal Research Institute WSL, Zürcherstrasse 111 , Birmensdorf 8903, Switzerland
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Ferrante M, Schulze M, Westphal C. Hedgerows can increase predation rates in wheat fields in homogeneous agricultural landscapes. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2024; 349:119498. [PMID: 37944322 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2023.119498] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2023] [Revised: 10/26/2023] [Accepted: 10/28/2023] [Indexed: 11/12/2023]
Abstract
In agricultural landscapes, semi-natural habitats can support populations of beneficial species, such as natural enemies. Using artificial caterpillars made of plasticine, we compared arthropod and vertebrate predation rates in wheat fields adjacent to hedgerows or spontaneous grass margins in two contrasting agricultural landscapes. Overall, 25.3% of the caterpillars were attacked after 24 h, mainly by arthropods (67.1%). Predation rates in the heterogeneous and homogeneous landscapes were similar (mean ± SE; 24.9% ± 3.0% vs 25.7% ± 3.6%, n = 10 per landscape). However, we found a significant interaction between the margin and landscape type. Total (arthropods + vertebrates) predation rates were significantly higher in wheat fields next to hedgerows than in conventional wheat fields with grass margins in the homogeneous landscape (33.7% ± 4.5% vs 17.7% ± 2.5%, n = 5 per margin type and landscape), while no difference between predation rates in the two margin types was detected in the heterogeneous landscape. Total and vertebrate predation rates were positively affected by plant species richness, which suggest that one of the mechanisms through which hedgerows can support higher predator activity than spontaneous grass margins, particularly in homogeneous agricultural landscapes, is by providing higher plant diversity. Our results suggest that in simple landscapes, hedgerows may act as habitat islands of high conservation value for biodiversity, having a disproportionate value compared to hedgerows in landscapes that include forest fragments and other semi-natural habitats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Ferrante
- Functional Agrobiodiversity, Department of Crop Sciences, University of Göttingen, 37077, Göttingen, Germany.
| | - Marlene Schulze
- Functional Agrobiodiversity, Department of Crop Sciences, University of Göttingen, 37077, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Catrin Westphal
- Functional Agrobiodiversity, Department of Crop Sciences, University of Göttingen, 37077, Göttingen, Germany; Centre of Biodiversity and Sustainable Land Use (CBL), University of Göttingen, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
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Barrone J, Vidal MC, Stevenson R. Sphingid caterpillars conspicuous patches do not function as distractive marks or warning against predators. Ecol Evol 2023; 13:e10334. [PMID: 37492454 PMCID: PMC10363802 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.10334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2023] [Revised: 07/01/2023] [Accepted: 07/05/2023] [Indexed: 07/27/2023] Open
Abstract
To avoid predation by visual predators, caterpillars can be cryptic to decrease detectability or aposematic to warn predators of potential unpalatability. However, for some species, it is not clear if conspicuous patches are selected to avoid predation. For example, Pandora sphinx (Eumorpha pandorus, Lepidoptera: Sphingidae) caterpillars are assumed to be palatable and have both cryptic (green, brown) and conspicuous (orange, red) color morphs. Five lateral, off-white to yellow patches on either side may serve as a warning for predators or to draw attention away from the caterpillar's form to function as distractive marks. We conducted a field study in three temperate fragmented forests in Massachusetts to investigate the potential utility of E. pandorus coloration and conspicuous patches. Using four plasticine caterpillar prey model treatments, green and red with and without lateral conspicuous patches, we tested the effects of color, patch patterning, and seasonality on attack rates by a variety of taxa. We found that 43% of the prey models (n = 964) had bite marks by an array of predators including arthropods (67.5%), birds (18.2%), rodents (11.5%), and large mammals (2.8%). Arthropods as dominant predators align with conclusions from previous studies of prey models placed near ground level. Attack rates peaked for arthropods in late August and early September but were more constant across trials for vertebrates. Arthropods, a heterogeneous group, as indicated by the variety of bite marks, showed significantly higher attack rates on green colored prey models and a tendency of higher attack on solid (non-patch patterned) prey models. Vertebrates, more visually oriented predators, had significantly higher attack rates on red colored prey models and patch patterned prey models. Thus, our results did not suggest that conspicuous patch patterning reduced predation and therefore, we did not find support for the distractive mark hypothesis or warning hypothesis. Further, our study shows clear contrasting interpretations by different predators regarding visual defensive strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Barrone
- Department of BiologyUniversity of Massachusetts BostonBostonMassachusettsUSA
| | - Mayra C. Vidal
- Department of BiologyUniversity of Massachusetts BostonBostonMassachusettsUSA
| | - Robert Stevenson
- Department of BiologyUniversity of Massachusetts BostonBostonMassachusettsUSA
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Casanelles‐Abella J, Fontana S, Fournier B, Frey D, Moretti M. Low resource availability drives feeding niche partitioning between wild bees and honeybees in a European city. ECOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS : A PUBLICATION OF THE ECOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA 2023; 33:e2727. [PMID: 36054537 PMCID: PMC10077915 DOI: 10.1002/eap.2727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2021] [Revised: 04/14/2022] [Accepted: 06/24/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Cities are socioecological systems that filter and select species, therefore establishing unique species assemblages and biotic interactions. Urban ecosystems can host richer wild bee communities than highly intensified agricultural areas, specifically in resource-rich urban green spaces such as allotments and family gardens. At the same time, urban beekeeping has boomed in many European cities, raising concerns that the fast addition of a large number of managed bees could deplete the existing floral resources, triggering competition between wild bees and honeybees. Here, we studied the interplay between resource availability and the number of honeybees at local and landscape scales and how this relationship influences wild bee diversity. We collected wild bees and honeybees in a pollination experiment using four standardized plant species with distinct floral morphologies. We performed the experiment in 23 urban gardens in the city of Zurich (Switzerland), distributed along gradients of urban and local management intensity, and measured functional traits related to resource use. At each site, we quantified the feeding niche partitioning (calculated as the average distance in the multidimensional trait space) between the wild bee community and the honeybee population. Using multilevel structural equation models (SEM), we tested direct and indirect effects of resource availability, urban beekeeping, and wild bees on the community feeding niche partitioning. We found an increase in feeding niche partitioning with increasing wild bee species richness. Moreover, feeding niche partitioning tended to increase in experimental sites with lower resource availability at the landscape scale, which had lower abundances of honeybees. However, beekeeping intensity at the local and landscape scales did not directly influence community feeding niche partitioning or wild bee species richness. In addition, wild bee species richness was positively influenced by local resource availability, whereas local honeybee abundance was positively affected by landscape resource availability. Overall, these results suggest that direct competition for resources was not a main driver of the wild bee community. Due to the key role of resource availability in maintaining a diverse bee community, our study encourages cities to monitor floral resources to better manage urban beekeeping and help support urban pollinators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joan Casanelles‐Abella
- Biodiversity and Conservation BiologySwiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research WSLBirmensdorfSwitzerland
- Institute of Terrestrial Ecosystems, ETH ZurichZurichSwitzerland
| | - Simone Fontana
- Biodiversity and Conservation BiologySwiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research WSLBirmensdorfSwitzerland
- Nature Conservation and Landscape EcologyUniversity of FreiburgFreiburgGermany
| | - Bertrand Fournier
- Institute of Environmental Sciences and Geography, University of PotsdamPotsdamGermany
| | - David Frey
- Biodiversity and Conservation BiologySwiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research WSLBirmensdorfSwitzerland
| | - Marco Moretti
- Biodiversity and Conservation BiologySwiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research WSLBirmensdorfSwitzerland
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Diaz-Martin Z, Browne L, Cabrera D, Olivo J, Karubian J. Impacts of Flowering Density on Pollen Dispersal and Gametic Diversity Are Scale Dependent. Am Nat 2023; 201:52-64. [PMID: 36524929 DOI: 10.1086/721918] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
AbstractPollen dispersal is a key evolutionary and ecological process, but the degree to which variation in the density of concurrently flowering conspecific plants (i.e., coflowering density) shapes pollination patterns remains understudied. We monitored coflowering density and corresponding pollination patterns of the insect-pollinated palm Oenocarpus bataua in northwestern Ecuador and found that the influence of coflowering density on these patterns was scale dependent: high neighborhood densities were associated with reductions in pollen dispersal distance and gametic diversity of progeny arrays, whereas we observed the opposite pattern at the landscape scale. In addition, neighborhood coflowering density also impacted forward pollen dispersal kernel parameters, suggesting that low neighborhood densities encourage pollen movement and may promote gene flow and genetic diversity. Our work reveals how coflowering density at different spatial scales influences pollen movement, which in turn informs our broader understanding of the mechanisms underlying patterns of genetic diversity and gene flow within populations of plants.
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Abstract
AbstractInvertebrates comprise the most diversified animal group on Earth. Due to their long evolutionary history and small size, invertebrates occupy a remarkable range of ecological niches, and play an important role as “ecosystem engineers” by structuring networks of mutualistic and antagonistic ecological interactions in almost all terrestrial ecosystems. Urban forests provide critical ecosystem services to humans, and, as in other systems, invertebrates are central to structuring and maintaining the functioning of urban forests. Identifying the role of invertebrates in urban forests can help elucidate their importance to practitioners and the public, not only to preserve biodiversity in urban environments, but also to make the public aware of their functional importance in maintaining healthy greenspaces. In this review, we examine the multiple functional roles that invertebrates play in urban forests that contribute to ecosystem service provisioning, including pollination, predation, herbivory, seed and microorganism dispersal and organic matter decomposition, but also those that lead to disservices, primarily from a public health perspective, e.g., transmission of invertebrate-borne diseases. We then identify a number of ecological filters that structure urban forest invertebrate communities, such as changes in habitat structure, increased landscape imperviousness, microclimatic changes and pollution. We also discuss the complexity of ways that forest invertebrates respond to urbanisation, including acclimation, local extinction and evolution. Finally, we present management recommendations to support and conserve viable and diverse urban forest invertebrate populations into the future.
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Villarroya-Villalba L, Casanelles-Abella J, Moretti M, Pinho P, Samson R, Van Mensel A, Chiron F, Zellweger F, Obrist MK. Response of bats and nocturnal insects to urban green areas in Europe. Basic Appl Ecol 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.baae.2021.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Risk of bird predation and defoliating insect abundance are greater in urban forest fragments than street trees. Urban Ecosyst 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s11252-020-00939-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Tresch S, Frey D, Bayon RCL, Mäder P, Stehle B, Fliessbach A, Moretti M. Direct and indirect effects of urban gardening on aboveground and belowground diversity influencing soil multifunctionality. Sci Rep 2019; 9:9769. [PMID: 31278335 PMCID: PMC6611818 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-46024-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2019] [Accepted: 06/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Urban gardens are popular green spaces that have the potential to provide essential ecosystem services, support human well-being, and at the same time foster biodiversity in cities. We investigated the impact of gardening activities on five soil functions and the relationship between plant (600 spp.) and soil fauna (earthworms: 18 spp., springtails: 39 spp.) in 85 urban gardens (170 sites) across the city of Zurich (Switzerland). Our results suggest that high plant diversity in gardens had a positive effect on soil fauna and soil multifunctionality, and that garden management intensity decreased plant diversity. Indices of biological activity in soil, such as organic and microbial carbon and bacterial abundance, showed a direct positive effect on soil multifunctionality. Soil moisture and disturbance, driven by watering and tilling, were the driving forces structuring plant and soil fauna communities. Plant indicator values proved useful to assess soil fauna community structure, even in anthropogenic plant assemblages. We conclude that to enhance soil functions, gardeners should increase plant diversity, and lower management intensity. Soil protective management practices, such as applying compost, mulch or avoiding soil tilling, should be included in urban green space planning to improve urban biodiversity and nature’s contribution to people.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Tresch
- Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL), Department of Soil Sciences, Ackerstrasse 113, 5070, Frick, CH, Switzerland. .,Swiss Federal Research Institute WSL, Biodiversity and Conservation Biology, Zürcherstrasse 111, 8903, Birmensdorf, CH, Switzerland. .,University of Neuchâtel, Institute of Biology, Functional Ecology Laboratory, Rue Emile-Argand 11, 2000, Neuchâtel, CH, Switzerland.
| | - David Frey
- Swiss Federal Research Institute WSL, Biodiversity and Conservation Biology, Zürcherstrasse 111, 8903, Birmensdorf, CH, Switzerland.,ETHZ, Department of Environmental System Science, Institute of Terrestrial Ecosystems, Universitaetstrasse 16, 8092, Zurich, CH, Switzerland
| | - Renée-Claire Le Bayon
- University of Neuchâtel, Institute of Biology, Functional Ecology Laboratory, Rue Emile-Argand 11, 2000, Neuchâtel, CH, Switzerland
| | - Paul Mäder
- Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL), Department of Soil Sciences, Ackerstrasse 113, 5070, Frick, CH, Switzerland
| | - Bernhard Stehle
- Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL), Department of Soil Sciences, Ackerstrasse 113, 5070, Frick, CH, Switzerland.,University of Konstanz, Department of Biology, Ecology, Universitätstrasse 10, 78464, Konstanz, DE, Germany
| | - Andreas Fliessbach
- Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL), Department of Soil Sciences, Ackerstrasse 113, 5070, Frick, CH, Switzerland
| | - Marco Moretti
- Swiss Federal Research Institute WSL, Biodiversity and Conservation Biology, Zürcherstrasse 111, 8903, Birmensdorf, CH, Switzerland
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Frey D, Moretti M. A comprehensive dataset on cultivated and spontaneously growing vascular plants in urban gardens. Data Brief 2019; 25:103982. [PMID: 31194048 PMCID: PMC6545399 DOI: 10.1016/j.dib.2019.103982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2019] [Revised: 04/16/2019] [Accepted: 05/01/2019] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
This article summarizes the data of a survey of vascular plants in 85 urban gardens of the city of Zurich, Switzerland. Data was acquired by two sampling methods: (i) a floristic inventory of entire garden lots based on repeated garden visits, including all vegetation periods; and (ii) vegetation relevés on two plots of standardized size (10 m2) per garden during the summer. We identified a total of 1081 taxa and report the origin status, i.e., whether a taxon is considered native or alien to Switzerland. Furthermore, the origin of a plant or garden population was estimated for each taxon and garden: each taxon in each garden was classified as being either cultivated or spontaneously growing. For each garden, the number of all native, cultivated, and spontaneously growing plant species is given, along with additional information, including garden area, garden type and the landscape-scale proportion of impermeable surface within a 500-m radius. The dataset is related to the research note entitled "Research Note: Self-reported habitat heterogeneity predicts plant species richness in urban gardens" [1]. It is also linked to a comprehensive dataset on biotic and abiotic soil data and as well as to a dataset on soil-surface dwelling and flying arthropods [2-6].
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Affiliation(s)
- David Frey
- Swiss Federal Research Institute WSL, Biodiversity and Conservation Biology, Zürcherstrasse 111, 8903 Birmensdorf, Switzerland.,Institute of Terrestrial Ecosystems, Department of Environmental Systems Science, ETH Zurich, Universitätstrasse 16, 8092 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Marco Moretti
- Swiss Federal Research Institute WSL, Biodiversity and Conservation Biology, Zürcherstrasse 111, 8903 Birmensdorf, Switzerland
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Tresch S, Frey D, Le Bayon RC, Zanetta A, Rasche F, Fliessbach A, Moretti M. Litter decomposition driven by soil fauna, plant diversity and soil management in urban gardens. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 658:1614-1629. [PMID: 30678018 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.12.235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2018] [Revised: 12/14/2018] [Accepted: 12/15/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
In the face of growing urban densification, green spaces in cities, such as gardens, are increasingly important for biodiversity and ecosystem services. However, the influences of urban green space management on biodiversity and ecosystem functioning (BEF) relationships is poorly understood. We investigated the relationship between soil fauna and litter decomposition in 170 urban garden sites along a gradient of urbanisation intensity in the city of Zurich, CH. We used litter bags of 1 and 4 mm mesh size to evaluate the contribution of soil meso- and macrofauna on litter decomposition. By using multilevel structural equation models (SEM), we investigated direct and indirect environmental effects and management practices on litter decomposition and litter residue quality. We evaluated the role of taxonomic, functional and phylogenetic diversity of soil fauna species on litter decomposition, based on a sample of 120 species (81,007 individuals; 39 collembola, 18 earthworm, 16 isopod, 47 gastropod species). We found highest litter decomposition rates using 4 mm mesh size litter bags, highlighting the importance of soil macrofauna. Urban warming, a proxy for urbanisation intensity, covaried positively, whereas soil disturbances, such as intensive soil and crop management, were negatively correlated with decomposition rates. Interestingly, soil fauna species richness decreased, with the exception of gastropods, and soil fauna abundance increased with urban warming. Our data also show that plant species richness positively affected litter decomposition by increasing soil fauna species richness and microbial activity. A multivariate analysis of organic compounds in litter residues confirmed the importance of soil fauna species richness and garden management on litter decomposition processes. Overall, we showed, that also in intensively managed urban green spaces, such as gardens, biodiversity of plants and soil fauna drives key ecosystem processes. Urban planning strategies that integrate soil protecting management practices may help to maintain important ecosystem services in this heavily used urban environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Tresch
- University of Neuchâtel, Institute of Biology, Functional Ecology Laboratory, Rue Emile-Argand 11, Neuchâtel 2000, Switzerland; Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL), Department of Soil Sciences, Ackerstrasse 113, Frick 5070, Switzerland; Swiss Federal Research Institute WSL, Biodiversity and Conservation Biology, Zuercherstrasse 111, Birmensdorf 8903, Switzerland.
| | - David Frey
- Swiss Federal Research Institute WSL, Biodiversity and Conservation Biology, Zuercherstrasse 111, Birmensdorf 8903, Switzerland; ETH, Department of Environmental System Science, Institute of Terrestrial Ecosystems, Universitaetstrasse 16, Zurich 8092, Switzerland
| | - Renée-Claire Le Bayon
- University of Neuchâtel, Institute of Biology, Functional Ecology Laboratory, Rue Emile-Argand 11, Neuchâtel 2000, Switzerland
| | - Andrea Zanetta
- Swiss Federal Research Institute WSL, Biodiversity and Conservation Biology, Zuercherstrasse 111, Birmensdorf 8903, Switzerland; University of Fribourg, Department of Biology, Chemin du musée 10, Fribourg 1700, Switzerland
| | - Frank Rasche
- Institute of Agricultural Sciences in the Tropics (Hans-Ruthenberg-Institute), University of Hohenheim, Garbenstr. 13, Stuttgart 70599, Germany
| | - Andreas Fliessbach
- Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL), Department of Soil Sciences, Ackerstrasse 113, Frick 5070, Switzerland
| | - Marco Moretti
- Swiss Federal Research Institute WSL, Biodiversity and Conservation Biology, Zuercherstrasse 111, Birmensdorf 8903, Switzerland
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