Prospects for using combined engineered bacterial enzymes and plant systems to rhizoremediate polychlorinated biphenyls

Flavonoids Are Intra- and Inter-Kingdom Modulator Signals

Flavonoids are a broad class of secondary metabolites with multifaceted functionalities for plant homeostasis and are involved in facing both biotic and abiotic stresses to sustain plant growth and health. Furthermore, they were discovered as mediators of plant networking with the surrounding environment, showing a surprising ability to perform as signaling compounds for a multitrophic inter-kingdom level of communication that influences the plant host at the phytobiome scale. Flavonoids orchestrate plant-neighboring plant allelopathic interactions, recruit beneficial bacteria and mycorrhizal fungi, counteract pathogen outbreak, influence soil microbiome and affect plant physiology to improve its resilience to fluctuating environmental conditions. This review focuses on the diversified spectrum of flavonoid functions in plants under a variety of stresses in the modulation of plant morphogenesis in response to environmental clues, as well as their role as inter-kingdom signaling molecules with micro- and macroorganisms. Regarding the latter, the review addresses flavonoids as key phytochemicals in the human diet, considering their abundance in fruits and edible plants. Recent evidence highlights their role as nutraceuticals, probiotics and as promising new drugs for the treatment of several pathologies.

Engineering Burkholderia xenovorans LB400 BphA through Site-Directed Mutagenesis at Position 283

Biphenyl dioxygenase (BPDO), which is a Rieske-type oxygenase (RO), catalyzes the initial dioxygenation of biphenyl and some polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). In order to enhance the degradation ability of BPDO in terms of a broader substrate range, the BphAE_S283M, BphAE_p4-S283M, and BphAE_RR41-S283M variants were created from the parent enzymes BphAE_LB400, BphAE_p4, and BphAE_RR41, respectively, by a substitution at one residue, Ser283Met. The results of steady-state kinetic parameters show that for biphenyl, the k _cat/K_m values of BphAE_S283M, BphAE_p4-S283M, and BphAE_RR41-S283M were significantly increased compared to those of their parent enzymes. Meanwhile, we determined the steady-state kinetics of BphAEs toward highly chlorinated biphenyls. The results suggested that the Ser283Met substitution enhanced the catalytic activity of BphAEs toward 2,3',4,4'-tetrachlorobiphenyl (2,3',4,4'-CB), 2,2',6,6'-tetrachlorobiphenyl (2,2',6,6'-CB), and 2,3',4,4',5-pentachlorobiphenyl (2,3',4,4',5-CB). We compared the catalytic reactions of BphAE_LB400 and its variants toward 2,2'-dichlorobiphenyl (2,2'-CB), 2,5-dichlorobiphenyl (2,5-CB), and 2,6-dichlorobiphenyl (2,6-CB). The biochemical data indicate that the Ser283Met substitution alters the orientation of the substrate inside the catalytic site and, thereby, its site of hydroxylation, and this was confirmed by docking experiments. We also assessed the substrate ranges of BphAE_LB400 and its variants with degradation activity. BphAE_S283M and BphAE_p4-S283M were clearly improved in oxidizing some of the 3-6-chlorinated biphenyls, which are generally very poorly oxidized by most dioxygenases. Collectively, the present work showed a significant effect of mutation Ser283Met on substrate specificity/regiospecificity in BPDO. These will certainly be meaningful elements for understanding the effect of the residue corresponding to position 283 in other Rieske oxygenase enzymes.IMPORTANCE The segment from positions 280 to 283 in BphAEs is located at the entrance of the catalytic pocket, and it shows variation in conformation. In previous works, results have suggested but never proved that residue Ser283 of BphAE_LB400 might play a role in substrate specificity. In the present paper, we found that the Ser283Met substitution significantly increased the specificity of the reaction of BphAE toward biphenyl, 2,3',4,4'-CB, 2,2',6,6'-CB, and 2,3',4,4',5-CB. Meanwhile, the Ser283Met substitution altered the regiospecificity of BphAE toward 2,2'-dichlorobiphenyl and 2,6-dichlorobiphenyl. Additionally, this substitution extended the range of PCBs metabolized by the mutated BphAE. BphAE_S283M and BphAE_p4-S283M were clearly improved in oxidizing some of the more highly chlorinated biphenyls (3 to 6 chlorines), which are generally very poorly oxidized by most dioxygenases. We used modeled and docked enzymes to identify some of the structural features that explain the new properties of the mutant enzymes. Altogether, the results of this study provide better insights into the mechanisms by which BPDO evolves to change and/or expand its substrate range and its regiospecificity.

Bacterial succession in oil-contaminated soil under phytoremediation with poplars

Petroleum hydrocarbons (PHCs) continue to be among the most common pollutants in soil worldwide. Phytoremediation has become a sustainable way of dealing with PHC contamination. We conducted the off-site phytoremediation of PHC-polluted soil from an oil tanker truck accident, where poplars were used for the phytoremediation of the oil-polluted soil in a boreal climate during a seven-year treatment. The succession of bacterial communities over the entire phytoremediation process was monitored using microbial ecological tools relying on high-throughput 16S rRNA gene sequencing. Upon the successful depletion of PHCs from soil, endophytic communities were analyzed in order to assess the complete plant-associated microbiome after the ecological recovery. The rhizosphere-associated soil exhibited different bacterial dynamics than unplanted soil, but both soils experienced succession of bacteria over time, with diversity being negatively correlated with PHC concentration. In the relatively short growing season in North Europe, seasonal variations in environmental conditions were identified that contributed to the dynamics of bacterial communities. Overall, our study proved that phytoremediation using poplar trees can be used to assist in the removal of PHCs from soils in boreal climate conditions and provides new insight into the succession patterns of bacterial communities associated with these plants.

Microcosm Experiment to Assess the Capacity of a Poplar Clone to Grow in a PCB-Contaminated Soil

Polychlorinated byphenyls (PCBs) are a class of Persistent Organic Pollutants extremely hard to remove from soil. The use of plants to promote the degradation of PCBs, thanks to synergic interactions between roots and the natural soil microorganisms in the rhizosphere, has been proved to constitute an effective and environmentally friendly remediation technique. Preliminary microcosm experiments were conducted in a greenhouse for 12 months to evaluate the capacity of the Monviso hybrid poplar clone, a model plant for phytoremediation, to grow in a low quality and PCB-contaminated soil in order to assess if this clone could be subsequently used in a field experiment. For this purpose, three different soil conditions (Microbiologically Active, Pre-sterilized and Hypoxic soils) were set up in order to assess the capacity of this clone to grow in the polluted soil in these different conditions and support the soil microbial community activity. The growth and physiology (chlorophyll content, chlorophyll fluorescence, ascorbate, phenolic compounds and flavonoid contents) of the poplar were determined. Moreover, chemical analyses were performed to assess the concentrations of PCB indicators in soil and plant roots. Finally, the microbial community was evaluated in terms of total abundance and activity under the different experimental conditions. Results showed that the poplar clone was able to grow efficiently in the contaminated soil and to promote microbial transformations of PCBs. Plants grown in the hypoxic condition promoted the formation of a higher number of higher-chlorinated PCBs and accumulated lower PCBs in their roots. However, plants in this condition showed a higher stress level than the other microcosms, producing higher amounts of phenolic, flavonoid and ascorbate contents, as a defence mechanism.

Metabolic pathway and cell adaptation mechanisms revealed through genomic, proteomic and transcription analysis of a Sphingomonas haloaromaticamans strain degrading ortho-phenylphenol

Ortho-phenylphenol (OPP) is a fungicide contained in agro-industrial effluents produced by fruit-packaging plants. Within the frame of developing bio-strategies to detoxify these effluents, an OPP-degrading Sphingomonas haloaromaticamans strain was isolated. Proteins/genes with a putative catabolic role and bacterium adaptation mechanisms during OPP degradation were identified via genomic and proteomic analysis. Transcription analysis of all putative catabolic genes established their role in the metabolism of OPP. The formation of key transformation products was verified by chromatographic analysis. Genomic analysis identified two orthologous operons encoding the ortho-cleavage of benzoic acid (BA) (ben/cat). The second ben/cat operon was located in a 92-kb scaffold along with (i) an operon (opp) comprising genes for the transformation of OPP to BA and 2-hydroxypenta-2,4-dienoate (and genes for its transformation) and (ii) an incomplete biphenyl catabolic operon (bph). Proteomics identified 13 up-regulated catabolic proteins when S. haloaromaticamans was growing on OPP and/or BA. Transcription analysis verified the key role of the catabolic operons located in the 92-kb scaffold, and flanked by transposases, on the transformation of OPP by S. haloaromaticamans. A flavin-dependent monoxygenase (OppA1), one of the most up-regulated proteins in the OPP-growing cells, was isolated via heterologous expression and its catabolic activity was verified in vitro.

Bacteria Associated to Plants Naturally Selected in a Historical PCB Polluted Soil Show Potential to Sustain Natural Attenuation

The exploitation of the association between plants and microorganisms is a promising approach able to boost natural attenuation processes for soil clean-up in vast polluted areas characterized by mixed chemical contamination. We aimed to explore the selection of root-associated bacterial communities driven by different plant species spontaneously established in abandoned agricultural soils within a historical polluted site in north Italy. The site is highly contaminated by chlorinated persistent organic pollutants, mainly constituted by polychlorobiphenyls (PCBs), together with heavy metals and metalloids, in variable concentrations and uneven distribution. The overall structure of the non-vegetated and root-associated soil fractions bacterial communities was described by high-throughput sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene, and a collection of 165 rhizobacterial isolates able to use biphenyl as unique carbon source was assayed for plant growth promotion (PGP) traits and bioremediation potential. The results showed that the recruitment of specific bacterial communities in the root-associated soil fractions was driven by both soil fractions and plant species, explaining 21 and 18% of the total bacterial microbiome variation, respectively. PCR-based detection in the soil metagenome of bacterial bphA gene, encoding for the biphenyl dioxygenase α subunit, indicated that the soil in the site possesses metabolic traits linked to PCB degradation. Biphenyl-utilizing bacteria isolated from the rhizosphere of the three different plant species showed low phylogenetic diversity and well represented functional traits, in terms of PGP and bioremediation potential. On average, 72% of the strains harbored the bphA gene and/or displayed catechol 2,3-dioxygenase activity, involved in aromatic ring cleavage. PGP traits, including 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid deaminase activity potentially associated to plant stress tolerance induction, were widely distributed among the isolates according to in vitro assays. PGP tested in vivo on tomato plants using eleven selected bacterial isolates, confirmed the promotion and protection potential of the rhizosphere bacteria. Different spontaneous plant species naturally selected in a historical chronically polluted site showed to determine the enrichment of peculiar bacterial communities in the soil fractions associated to the roots. All the rhizosphere communities, nevertheless, hosted bacteria with degradation/detoxification and PGP potential, putatively sustaining the natural attenuation process.

Phyto-rhizoremediation of polychlorinated biphenyl contaminated soils: An outlook on plant-microbe beneficial interactions

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are toxic chemicals, recalcitrant to degradation, bioaccumulative and persistent in the environment, causing adverse effects on ecosystems and human health. For this reason, the remediation of PCB-contaminated soils is a primary issue to be addressed. Phytoremediation represents a promising tool for in situ soil remediation, since the available physico-chemical technologies have strong environmental and economic impacts. Plants can extract and metabolize several xenobiotics present in the soil, but their ability to uptake and mineralize PCBs is limited due to the recalcitrance and low bioavailability of these molecules that in turn impedes an efficient remediation of PCB-contaminated soils. Besides plant degradation ability, rhizoremediation takes into account the capability of soil microbes to uptake, attack and degrade pollutants, so it can be seen as the most suitable strategy to clean-up PCB-contaminated soils. Microbes are in fact the key players of PCB degradation, performed under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions. In the rhizosphere, microbes and plants positively interact. Microorganisms can promote plant growth under stressed conditions typical of polluted soils. Moreover, in this specific niche, root exudates play a pivotal role by promoting the biphenyl catabolic pathway, responsible for microbial oxidative PCB metabolism, and by improving the overall PCB degradation performance. Besides rhizospheric microbial community, also the endophytic bacteria are involved in pollutant degradation and represent a reservoir of microbial resources to be exploited for bioremediation purposes. Here, focusing on plant-microbe beneficial interactions, we propose a review of the available results on PCB removal from soil obtained combining different plant and microbial species, mainly under simplified conditions like greenhouse experiments. Furthermore, we discuss the potentiality of "omics" approaches to identify PCB-degrading microbes, an aspect of paramount importance to design rhizoremediation strategies working efficiently under different environmental conditions, pointing out the urgency to expand research investigations to field scale.

Optimizing Polychlorinated Biphenyl Degradation by Flavonoid-Induced Cells of the Rhizobacterium Rhodococcus erythropolis U23A

There is evidence that many plant secondary metabolites may act as signal molecules to trigger the bacterial ability to metabolize polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) during the rhizoremediation process. However, the bases for the PCB rhizoremediation process are still largely unknown. The rhizobacterium Rhodococcus erythropolis U23A is unable to use flavanone as a growth substrate. However, on the basis of an assay that monitors the amount of 4-chlorobenzoate produced from 4-chlorobiphenyl by cells grown co-metabolically on flavanone plus sodium acetate, this flavonoid was previously found to be a potential inducer of the U23A biphenyl catabolic pathway. In this work, and using the same assay, we identified ten other flavonoids that did not support growth, but that acted as inducers of the U23A biphenyl pathway, and we confirmed flavonoid induction of the biphenyl catabolic pathway using quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) on the bphA gene. We also examined the effect of the growth co-substrate on flavonoid induction. Sodium acetate was replaced by glucose, mannose, sucrose, or mannitol, which are sugars found in plant root exudates. The data showed that the level of induction of strain U23A biphenyl-degrading enzymes was significantly influenced by the nature and concentration of the flavonoid in the growth medium, as well as by the substrate used for growth. Sucrose allowed for an optimal induction response for most flavonoids. Some flavonoids, such as flavone and isoflavone, were better inducers of the biphenyl catabolic enzymes than biphenyl itself. We also found that all flavonoids tested in this work were metabolized by strain U23A during co-metabolic growth, but that the metabolite profiles, as well as the level of efficiency of degradation, differed for each flavonoid. To obtain insight into how flavonoids interact with strain U23A to promote polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) degradation, we determined the concentration of flavanone at which optimal PCB-degrading performance of strain U23A was achieved. We showed that it corresponded to the concentration required to fully induce the biphenyl catabolic pathway of the strain. Together, our data demonstrate that optimal PCB degradation during the rhizoremediation process will require the adjustment of several parameters, including the presence of the appropriate flavonoids at the proper concentrations and the presence of proper growth substrates that positively influence the ability of flavonoids to induce the pathway.

Metabolism of Doubly para-Substituted Hydroxychlorobiphenyls by Bacterial Biphenyl Dioxygenases

In this work, we examined the profile of metabolites produced from the doubly para-substituted biphenyl analogs 4,4'-dihydroxybiphenyl, 4-hydroxy-4'-chlorobiphenyl, 3-hydroxy-4,4'-dichlorobiphenyl, and 3,3'-dihydroxy-4,4'-chlorobiphenyl by biphenyl-induced Pandoraea pnomenusa B356 and by its biphenyl dioxygenase (BPDO). 4-Hydroxy-4'-chlorobiphenyl was hydroxylated principally through a 2,3-dioxygenation of the hydroxylated ring to generate 2,3-dihydro-2,3,4-trihydroxy-4'-chlorobiphenyl and 3,4-dihydroxy-4'-chlorobiphenyl after the removal of water. The former was further oxidized by the biphenyl dioxygenase to produce ultimately 3,4,5-trihydroxy-4'-chlorobiphenyl, a dead-end metabolite. 3-Hydroxy-4,4'-dichlorobiphenyl was oxygenated on both rings. Hydroxylation of the nonhydroxylated ring generated 2,3,3'-trihydroxy-4'-chlorobiphenyl with concomitant dechlorination, and 2,3,3'-trihydroxy-4'-chlorobiphenyl was ultimately metabolized to 2-hydroxy-4-chlorobenzoate, but hydroxylation of the hydroxylated ring generated dead-end metabolites. 3,3'-Dihydroxy-4,4'-dichlorobiphenyl was principally metabolized through a 2,3-dioxygenation to generate 2,3-dihydro-2,3,3'-trihydroxy-4,4'-dichlorobiphenyl, which was ultimately converted to 3-hydroxy-4-chlorobenzoate. Similar metabolites were produced when the biphenyl dioxygenase of Burkholderia xenovorans LB400 was used to catalyze the reactions, except that for the three substrates used, the BPDO of LB400 was less efficient than that of B356, and unlike that of B356, it was unable to further oxidize the initial reaction products. Together the data show that BPDO oxidation of doubly para-substituted hydroxychlorobiphenyls may generate nonnegligible amounts of dead-end metabolites. Therefore, biphenyl dioxygenase could produce metabolites other than those expected, corresponding to dihydrodihydroxy metabolites from initial doubly para-substituted substrates. This finding shows that a clear picture of the fate of polychlorinated biphenyls in contaminated sites will require more insights into the bacterial metabolism of hydroxychlorobiphenyls and the chemistry of the dihydrodihydroxylated metabolites derived from them.

Enhanced tolerance and remediation to mixed contaminates of PCBs and 2,4-DCP by transgenic alfalfa plants expressing the 2,3-dihydroxybiphenyl-1,2-dioxygenase

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and 2,4-dichlorophenol (2,4-DCP) generally led to mixed contamination of soils as a result of commercial and agricultural activities. Their accumulation in the environment poses great risks to human and animal health. Therefore, the effective strategies for disposal of these pollutants are urgently needed. In this study, genetic engineering to enhance PCBs/2,4-DCP phytoremediation is a focus. We cloned the 2,3-dihydroxybiphenyl-1,2-dioxygenase (BphC.B) from a soil metagenomic library, which is the key enzyme of aerobic catabolism of a variety of aromatic compounds, and then it was expressed in alfalfa driven by CaMV 35S promoter using Agrobacterium-mediated transformation. Transgenic line BB11 was selected out through PCR, Western blot analysis and enzyme activity assays. Its disposal and tolerance to both PCBs and 2,4-DCP were examined. The tolerance capability of transgenic line BB11 towards complex contaminants of PCBs/2,4-DCP significantly increased compared with non-transgenic plants. Strong dissipation of PCBs and high removal efficiency of 2,4-DCP were exhibited in a short time. It was confirmed expressing BphC.B would be a feasible strategy to help achieving phytoremediation in mixed contaminated soils with PCBs and 2,4-DCP.

Has the bacterial biphenyl catabolic pathway evolved primarily to degrade biphenyl? The diphenylmethane case

In this work, we have compared the ability of Pandoraea pnomenusa B356 and of Burkholderia xenovorans LB400 to metabolize diphenylmethane and benzophenone, two biphenyl analogs in which the phenyl rings are bonded to a single carbon. Both chemicals are of environmental concern. P. pnomenusa B356 grew well on diphenylmethane. On the basis of growth kinetics analyses, diphenylmethane and biphenyl were shown to induce the same catabolic pathway. The profile of metabolites produced during growth of strain B356 on diphenylmethane was the same as the one produced by isolated enzymes of the biphenyl catabolic pathway acting individually or in coupled reactions. The biphenyl dioxygenase oxidizes diphenylmethane to 3-benzylcyclohexa-3,5-diene-1,2-diol very efficiently, and ultimately this metabolite is transformed to phenylacetic acid, which is further metabolized by a lower pathway. Strain B356 was also able to cometabolize benzophenone through its biphenyl pathway, although in this case, this substrate was unable to induce the biphenyl catabolic pathway and the degradation was incomplete, with accumulation of 2-hydroxy-6,7-dioxo-7-phenylheptanoic acid. Unlike strain B356, B. xenovorans LB400 did not grow on diphenylmethane. Its biphenyl pathway enzymes metabolized diphenylmethane, but they poorly metabolize benzophenone. The fact that the biphenyl catabolic pathway of strain B356 metabolized diphenylmethane and benzophenone more efficiently than that of strain LB400 brings us to postulate that in strain B356, this pathway evolved divergently to serve other functions not related to biphenyl degradation.

Overview of in situ and ex situ remediation technologies for PCB-contaminated soils and sediments and obstacles for full-scale application

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) are persistent organic pollutants used worldwide between the 1930s and 1980s. Although their use has been heavily restricted, PCB can be found in contaminated soils and sediments. The most frequent remediation solutions adopted are "dig and dump" and "dig and incinerate", but there are currently new methods that could be more sustainable alternatives. This paper takes a look into the remediation options available for PCB-contaminated soils and sediments, differentiating between biological, chemical, physical and thermal methods. The use of combined technologies was also reviewed. Most of them are still in an initial development stage and further research in different implementation issues is needed. There is no single technology that is the solution for PCB contamination problem. The successful remediation of a site will depend on proper selection, design and adjustment of the technology or combined technologies to the site characteristics.