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Berini F, Montali A, Liguori R, Venturini G, Bonelli M, Shaltiel-Harpaz L, Reguzzoni M, Siti M, Marinelli F, Casartelli M, Tettamanti G. Production and characterization of Trichoderma asperellum chitinases and their use in synergy with Bacillus thuringiensis for lepidopteran control. PEST MANAGEMENT SCIENCE 2024; 80:3401-3411. [PMID: 38407453 DOI: 10.1002/ps.8045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2023] [Revised: 02/19/2024] [Accepted: 02/21/2024] [Indexed: 02/27/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Despite their known negative effects on ecosystems and human health, synthetic pesticides are still largely used to control crop insect pests. Currently, the biopesticide market for insect biocontrol mainly relies on the entomopathogenic bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). New biocontrol tools for crop protection might derive from fungi, in particular from Trichoderma spp., which are known producers of chitinases and other bioactive compounds able to negatively affect insect survival. RESULTS In this study, we first developed an environmentally sustainable production process for obtaining chitinases from Trichoderma asperellum ICC012. Then, we investigated the biological effects of this chitinase preparation - alone or in combination with a Bt-based product - when orally administered to two lepidopteran species. Our results demonstrate that T. asperellum efficiently produces a multi-enzymatic cocktail able to alter the chitin microfibril network of the insect peritrophic matrix, resulting in delayed development and larval death. The co-administration of T. asperellum chitinases and sublethal concentrations of Bt toxins increased larval mortality. This synergistic effect was likely due to the higher amount of Bt toxins that passed the damaged peritrophic matrix and reached the target receptors on the midgut cells of chitinase-treated insects. CONCLUSION Our findings may contribute to the development of an integrated pest management technology based on fungal chitinases that increase the efficacy of Bt-based products, mitigating the risk of Bt-resistance development. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Berini
- Department of Biotechnology and Life Sciences, University of Insubria, Varese, Italy
- Interuniversity Centre for Studies on Bioinspired Agro-Environmental Technology (BAT Centre), University of Naples Federico II, Portici, Italy
| | - Aurora Montali
- Department of Biotechnology and Life Sciences, University of Insubria, Varese, Italy
| | - Riccardo Liguori
- Isagro Research Centre affiliated to Gowan Crop Protection Ltd, Novara, Italy
| | - Giovanni Venturini
- Isagro Research Centre affiliated to Gowan Crop Protection Ltd, Novara, Italy
| | - Marco Bonelli
- Department of Biosciences, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Liora Shaltiel-Harpaz
- Integrated Pest Management Laboratory Northern R&D, MIGAL - Galilee Research Institute, Kiryat Shmona, Israel
- Environmental Sciences Department, Faculty of Sciences and Technology, Tel Hai College, Kiryat Shmona, Israel
| | - Marcella Reguzzoni
- Department of Medicine and Technological Innovation, University of Insubria, Varese, Italy
| | - Moran Siti
- Luxembourg Industries Ltd, Tel-Aviv, Israel
| | - Flavia Marinelli
- Department of Biotechnology and Life Sciences, University of Insubria, Varese, Italy
- Interuniversity Centre for Studies on Bioinspired Agro-Environmental Technology (BAT Centre), University of Naples Federico II, Portici, Italy
| | - Morena Casartelli
- Interuniversity Centre for Studies on Bioinspired Agro-Environmental Technology (BAT Centre), University of Naples Federico II, Portici, Italy
- Department of Biosciences, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Gianluca Tettamanti
- Department of Biotechnology and Life Sciences, University of Insubria, Varese, Italy
- Interuniversity Centre for Studies on Bioinspired Agro-Environmental Technology (BAT Centre), University of Naples Federico II, Portici, Italy
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Huang Q, Han W, Posada-Florez F, Evans JD. Microbiomes, diet flexibility, and the spread of a beetle parasite of honey bees. Front Microbiol 2024; 15:1387248. [PMID: 38881661 PMCID: PMC11176428 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2024.1387248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2024] [Accepted: 05/20/2024] [Indexed: 06/18/2024] Open
Abstract
Invasive pests may disturb and destructively reformat the local ecosystem. The small hive beetle (SHB), Aethina tumida, originated in Africa and has expanded to America, Australia, Europe, and Asia. A key factor facilitating its fast global expansion is its ability to subsist on diverse food inside and outside honey bee colonies. SHBs feed on various plant fruits and exudates in the environment while searching for bee hives. After sneaking into a bee hive, they switch their diet to honey, pollen, and bee larvae. How SHBs survive on such a broad range of food remains unclear. In this study, we simulated the outside and within hive stages by providing banana and hive resources and quantified the SHB associated microbes adjusted by the diet. We found that SHBs fed on bananas were colonized by microbes coding more carbohydrate-active enzymes and a higher alpha diversity than communities from SHBs feeding on hive products or those collected directly from bee hives. SHBs fed on bananas and those collected from the hive showed high symbiont variance, indicated by the beta diversity. Surprisingly, we found the honey bee core symbiont Snodgrassella alvi in the guts of SHBs collected in bee hives. To determine the role of S. alvi in SHB biology, we inoculated SHBs with a genetically tagged culture of S. alvi, showing that this symbiont is a likely transient of SHBs. In contrast, the fungus Kodamaea ohmeri is the primary commensal of SHBs. Diet-based microbiome shifts are likely to play a key role in the spread and success of SHBs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiang Huang
- Honeybee Research Institute, Jiangxi Agricultural University, Nanchang, China
- Department of Integrative Biology, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, United States
| | - Wensu Han
- Environment and Plant Protection Institute, Chinese Academy of Tropical Agricultural Sciences, Haikou, China
| | - Francisco Posada-Florez
- USDA, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Bee Research Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville, MD, United States
| | - Jay D Evans
- USDA, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Bee Research Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville, MD, United States
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Yan H, Wang E, Wei GS, Zhang B, Xu X. Both host and diet shape bacterial communities of predatory mites. INSECT SCIENCE 2024; 31:551-561. [PMID: 37469127 DOI: 10.1111/1744-7917.13253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2023] [Revised: 05/23/2023] [Accepted: 06/09/2023] [Indexed: 07/21/2023]
Abstract
Microbial communities, derived from food, ambient, and inner, can affect host ecological adaption and evolution. Comparing with most phytophagous arthropods, predators may have more opportunities to develop specific microbiota depending on the level of prey specialization. To explore how diet sources affect host microbial communities and vary across predator species, we considered 3 types of predators from Phytoseiidae (Acari: Mesostigmata): polyphagous (Amblyseius orientalis Ehara, Neoseiulus barkeri Hughes, and Amblyseius swirskii Athias-Henrio), oligophagous (Neoseiulus californicus McGregor), and monophagous (Phytoseiulus persimilis Athias-Henriot) predatory mites. The polyphagous species were fed on 2 types of diets, natural prey and alternative prey. By using 16S rRNA sequencing, we found that diet was the main source of microbiota in predatory mites, while there was no clear pattern affected by prey specialization. Among 3 polyphagous predators, host species had a larger impact than prey on microbial composition. Unlike A. orientalis or N. barkeri which showed consistency in their microbiota, prey switching significantly affected β-diversity of bacterial composition in A. swirskii, with 56% of the microbial alteration. In short, our results confirmed the substantial influence of diet on host microbial construction in predatory species, and highlighted species differences in shaping the microbiota which are not necessarily related to prey specialization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong Yan
- Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
- College of Plant Protection, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding, Hebei Province, China
| | - Endong Wang
- Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Guo-Shu Wei
- College of Plant Protection, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding, Hebei Province, China
| | - Bo Zhang
- Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
- Key Laboratory of Natural Enemies Insects, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Beijing, China
| | - Xuenong Xu
- Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
- Key Laboratory of Natural Enemies Insects, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Beijing, China
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Real-Baca CI, Zuniga-Gonzalez CA. Periodical crossing of the laboratory population with the natural population would improve fitness in S. sunia ( Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). F1000Res 2023; 12:30. [PMID: 38919837 PMCID: PMC11196938 DOI: 10.12688/f1000research.129183.3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/03/2023] [Indexed: 06/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Background The research focused on evaluating the biological and reproductive parameters of the species Spodoptera sunia with the introduction of field genetic material, in the Noctuid Insect Breeding Laboratory. Methods The experiment consisted of three treatments and three repetitions involving 30 individuals each. Field-collected S. sunia population was reared in the laboratory under semi-controlled conditions of temperature and humidity for three generations. The progeny of the third generation was crossed with the laboratory population and the resulting progeny was observed for growth and reproductive fitness. Results The results revealed that the hybrid progeny (T3) has a sex ratio (F: M) of 0.82, as against 1.22 and 0.76 observed in the field (T1) and lab populations (T2) respectively. The T1 females oviposited 196 egg masses as against 160 and 59 egg masses by T3 and T2 females respectively. The larval growth was more in hybrid progeny with shorter larval duration. However, no variation was observed in the incubation and pupal periods. Conclusions Since the most optimal results were obtained in T2 and T3, it is recommended to introduce genetic material every six months to maintain a good laboratory population of the insect host under study and better breeding of its natural enemies.
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Affiliation(s)
- C. I. Real-Baca
- Center for the production and reproduction of biological controllers, National Autonomous University of Nicaragua, Leon, 21000, Nicaragua
| | - C. A. Zuniga-Gonzalez
- Bioeconomy and Climate Change Research Center, National Autonomous University of Nicaragua, Leon, 21000, Nicaragua
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Li J, Sauers L, Zhuang D, Ren H, Guo J, Wang L, Zhuang M, Guo Y, Zhang Z, Wu J, Yao J, Yang H, Huang J, Wang C, Lin Q, Zhang Z, Sadd BM. Divergence and convergence of gut microbiomes of wild insect pollinators. mBio 2023; 14:e0127023. [PMID: 37504575 PMCID: PMC10470603 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.01270-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2023] [Accepted: 06/14/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Pollination services provided by wild insect pollinators are critical to natural ecosystems and crops around the world. There is an increasing appreciation that the gut microbiota of these insects influences their health and consequently their services. However, pollinator gut microbiota studies have focused on well-described social bees, but rarely include other, more phylogenetically divergent insect pollinators. To expand our understanding, we explored the insect pollinator microbiomes across three insect orders through two DNA sequencing approaches. First, in an exploratory 16S amplicon sequencing analysis of taxonomic community assemblages, we found lineage-specific divergences of dominant microbial genera and microbiota community composition across divergent insect pollinator genera. However, we found no evidence for a strong broad-scale phylogenetic signal, which we see for community relatedness at finer scales. Subsequently, we utilized metagenomic shotgun sequencing to obtain metagenome-assembled genomes and assess the functionality of the microbiota from pollinating flies and social wasps. We uncover a novel gut microbe from pollinating flies in the family Orbaceae that is closely related to Gilliamella spp. from social bees but with divergent functions. We propose this novel species be named Candidatus Gilliamella eristali. Further metagenomes of dominant fly and wasp microbiome members suggest that they are largely not host-insect adapted and instead may be environmentally derived. Overall, this study suggests selective processes involving ecology or physiology, or neutral processes determining microbe colonization may predominate in the turnover of lineages in insect pollinators broadly, while evolution with hosts may occur only under certain circumstances and on smaller phylogenetic scales. IMPORTANCE Wild insect pollinators provide many key ecosystem services, and the microbes associated with these insect pollinators may influence their health. Therefore, understanding the diversity in microbiota structure and function, along with the potential mechanisms shaping the microbiota across diverse insect pollinators, is critical. Our study expands beyond existing knowledge of well-studied social bees, like honey bees, including members from other bee, wasp, butterfly, and fly pollinators. We infer ecological and evolutionary factors that may influence microbiome structure across diverse insect pollinator hosts and the functions that microbiota members may play. We highlight significant differentiation of microbiomes among diverse pollinators. Closer analysis suggests that dominant members may show varying levels of host association and functions, even in a comparison of closely related microbes found in bees and flies. This work suggests varied importance of ecological, physiological, and non-evolutionary filters in determining structure and function across largely divergent wild insect pollinator microbiomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jilian Li
- State Key Laboratory of Resource Insects, Institute of Apicultural Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Beijing, China., Beijing, China
| | - Logan Sauers
- School of Biological Sciences, Illinois State University, Normal, Illinois, USA
| | - Daohua Zhuang
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Bio-Resources in Yunnan, School of Life Sciences, Yunnan University, Kunming, Yunnan, China
| | - Haiqing Ren
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Bio-Resources in Yunnan, School of Life Sciences, Yunnan University, Kunming, Yunnan, China
| | - Jun Guo
- Faculty of Life Science and Technology, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming, Yunnan, China
| | - Liuhao Wang
- College of Resources and Environmental Sciences, Henan Institute of Science and Technology, Xinxiang, Henan, China
| | - Mingsheng Zhuang
- State Key Laboratory of Resource Insects, Institute of Apicultural Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Beijing, China., Beijing, China
- Shanghai Suosheng Biotechnology Co., Ltd., Shanghai, China
| | - Yulong Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Resource Insects, Institute of Apicultural Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Beijing, China., Beijing, China
| | - Zhengyi Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Resource Insects, Institute of Apicultural Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Beijing, China., Beijing, China
| | - Jie Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Resource Insects, Institute of Apicultural Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Beijing, China., Beijing, China
| | - Jun Yao
- State Key Laboratory of Resource Insects, Institute of Apicultural Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Beijing, China., Beijing, China
| | - Huipeng Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Resource Insects, Institute of Apicultural Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Beijing, China., Beijing, China
| | - Jiaxing Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Resource Insects, Institute of Apicultural Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Beijing, China., Beijing, China
| | - Chengrui Wang
- Computer Network Information Center, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Qinghui Lin
- Computer Network Information Center, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Zhigang Zhang
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Bio-Resources in Yunnan, School of Life Sciences, Yunnan University, Kunming, Yunnan, China
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Resources and Evolution, Laboratory of Evolutionary & Functional Genomics, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan, China
| | - Ben M. Sadd
- School of Biological Sciences, Illinois State University, Normal, Illinois, USA
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Chamankar B, Maleki-Ravasan N, Karami M, Forouzan E, Karimian F, Naeimi S, Choobdar N. The structure and diversity of microbial communities in Paederus fuscipes (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae): from ecological paradigm to pathobiome. MICROBIOME 2023; 11:11. [PMID: 36670494 PMCID: PMC9862579 DOI: 10.1186/s40168-022-01456-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2022] [Accepted: 12/21/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Paederus fuscipes is medically the most famous rove beetle, which causes dermatitis or conjunctivitis in humans, as well as gastrointestinal toxicosis in livestock, via releasing toxic hemolymph containing pederin. Pedrin biosynthesis genes have been identified in uncultured Pseudomonas-like endosymbionts that are speculated to be acquired through a horizontal transfer. However, the composition of the P. fuscipes microbial community, especially of the gut and genital microbiome, remains unclear. This study was aimed to characterize the structure and diversity of P. fuscipes-associated bacterial communities in terms of gender, organ, and location using the Illumina HiSeq platform in the southern littorals of Caspian Sea. RESULTS The OTUs identified from P. fuscipes specimens were collapsed into 40 phyla, 112 classes, 249 orders, 365 families, 576 genera, and 106 species. The most abundant families were Pseudomonadaceae, Spiroplasmataceae, Weeksellaceae, Enterococcaceae, and Rhizobiaceae, respectively. Thirty top genera made up > 94% of the P. fuscipes microbiome, with predominating Pseudomonas, followed by the Spiroplasma, Apibacter, Enterococcus, Dysgonomonas, Sebaldella, Ruminococcus, and Wolbachia. Interesting dissimilarities were also discovered within and between the beetle microbiomes in terms of genders and organs. Analyses showed that Spiroplasma / Apibacter as well as Pseudomonas / Pseudomonas were the most abundant in the genitals / intestines of male and female beetles, respectively. Bacterial richness did not display any significant difference in the three provinces but was higher in male beetles than in females and more in the genitals than intestines. CONCLUSIONS The present study identified Pseudomonas-like endobacterium as a common symbiont of P. fuscipes beetles; this bacterium begins its journey from gut and genitalia of females to reach the male rove beetles. Additionally, male and female rove beetles were characterized by distinctive microbiota in different organs, likely reflecting different functions and/or adaptation processes. Evidence of the extension of P. fuscipes microbiome from the environmental paradigm to the pathobiome was also presented herein. A comprehensive survey of P. fuscipes microbiome components may eventually lead to ecological insights into the production and utilization of defensive compound of pederin and also the management of linear dermatitis with the use of available antibiotics against bacterial pathogens released by the beetles. Video Abstract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bahar Chamankar
- Department of Parasitology, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
- Departments of Zoology Biosystematics, Payame Noor University, East Tehran Centre, Tehran, Iran
| | | | - Mohsen Karami
- Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine Research Center, Health Research Institute, Babol University of Medical Sciences, Babol, Iran
| | | | - Fateh Karimian
- Department of Parasitology, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Sabah Naeimi
- Department of Parasitology, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Nayyereh Choobdar
- Department of Medical Entomology and Vector Control, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
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Metabolic novelty originating from horizontal gene transfer is essential for leaf beetle survival. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2022; 119:e2205857119. [PMID: 36161953 PMCID: PMC9546569 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2205857119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Horizontal gene transfer (HGT) provides an evolutionary shortcut for recipient organisms to gain novel functions. Although reports of HGT in higher eukaryotes are rapidly accumulating, in most cases the evolutionary trajectory, metabolic integration, and ecological relevance of acquired genes remain unclear. Plant cell wall degradation by HGT-derived enzymes is widespread in herbivorous insect lineages. Pectin is an abundant polysaccharide in the walls of growing parts of plants. We investigated the significance of horizontally acquired pectin-digesting polygalacturonases (PGs) of the leaf beetle Phaedon cochleariae. Using a CRISPR/Cas9-guided gene knockout approach, we generated a triple knockout and a quadruple PG-null mutant in order to investigate the enzymatic, biological, and ecological effects. We found that pectin-digestion 1) is exclusively linked to the horizontally acquired PGs from fungi, 2) became fixed in the host genome by gene duplication leading to functional redundancy, 3) compensates for nutrient-poor diet by making the nutritious cell contents more accessible, and 4) facilitates the beetles development and survival. Our analysis highlights the selective advantage PGs provide to herbivorous insects and demonstrate the impact of HGT on the evolutionary success of leaf-feeding beetles, major contributors to species diversity.
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Magoga G, Forni G, Brunetti M, Meral A, Spada A, De Biase A, Montagna M. Curation of a reference database of COI sequences for insect identification through DNA metabarcoding: COins. Database (Oxford) 2022; 2022:6633260. [PMID: 35796594 PMCID: PMC9261288 DOI: 10.1093/database/baac055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2022] [Revised: 05/19/2022] [Accepted: 06/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
DNA metabarcoding is a widespread approach for the molecular identification of organisms. While the associated wet-lab and data processing procedures are well established and highly efficient, the reference databases for taxonomic assignment can be implemented to improve the accuracy of identifications. Insects are among the organisms for which DNA-based identification is most commonly used; yet, a DNA-metabarcoding reference database specifically curated for their species identification using software requiring local databases is lacking. Here, we present COins, a database of 5’ region cytochrome c oxidase subunit I sequences (COI-5P) of insects that includes over 532 000 representative sequences of >106 000 species specifically formatted for the QIIME2 software platform. Through a combination of automated and manually curated steps, we developed this database starting from all COI sequences available in the Barcode of Life Data System for insects, focusing on sequences that comply with several standards, including a species-level identification. COins was validated on previously published DNA-metabarcoding sequences data (bulk samples from Malaise traps) and its efficiency compared with other publicly available reference databases (not specific for insects). COins can allow an increase of up to 30% of species-level identifications and thus can represent a valuable resource for the taxonomic assignment of insects’ DNA-metabarcoding data, especially when species-level identification is needed https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.19130465.v1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giulia Magoga
- Department of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, University of Milan , Via Celoria 2, Milano 20133, Italy
| | - Giobbe Forni
- Department of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, University of Milan , Via Celoria 2, Milano 20133, Italy
| | - Matteo Brunetti
- Department of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, University of Milan , Via Celoria 2, Milano 20133, Italy
| | - Aycan Meral
- Department of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, University of Milan , Via Celoria 2, Milano 20133, Italy
| | - Alberto Spada
- Department of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, University of Milan , Via Celoria 2, Milano 20133, Italy
| | - Alessio De Biase
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology ‘Charles Darwin’, Sapienza University of Rome , Viale dell’Università 32, Rome 00185, Italy
| | - Matteo Montagna
- Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Naples Federico II , Via Università 100, Portici 80055, Italy
- Interuniversity Center for Studies on Bioinspired Agro-Environmental Technology (BAT Center), University of Naples Federico II , Via Università 100, Naples 80055, Italy
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